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英国社会文化背景 英国的正式国名是「大不列颠与北爱尔兰联合王国」(The
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)，常简称为联合王国(United
Kingdom)或不列颠(Britain)，在此一架 构下又包括了四个区域，分别是英格兰、苏格兰、威尔斯和北爱尔兰。其土地面积是241,7 52平方公里，根据1994年的人口资料大约为58,400,000人。 由历史及人种上而言，苏格兰人(Scots)、威尔斯人(Welsh)和北爱尔兰人(Northern Irish)都 属于凯尔特族(Celtic
peoples)的后裔，而英格兰人(English) 则主要是属于盎格鲁撒克逊族(Anglo-Saxon)。由于英格兰人在人口与文化上的绝对优势， 在名义上整个联合王国又受英国王室统治，且政治权力的核心又决定于伦敦国会，把英国 与不列颠等同于英格兰也变成相当自然的事。当然，英伦三岛经过数百年来互动与交往， 显然在语言与文化上已经有了相当程度的融合，只不过英格兰人以外的人民，仍然保持其 在传统文化上的民族独特性，所以对于许多国人或是刚到英国的留学生而言，时常会受到 中文译名的影响，而搞不清楚British与English的分别，譬如我们都会把苏格兰人和威尔斯 人都算成是英国人(British)，但绝对不能称对方是English（英格兰人），这会对那些明明不 是英格兰人且自我认同感非常强烈的的苏格兰人、威尔斯人和北爱尔兰人，不仅会引起强 烈不悦，甚至是一种冒犯。曾经有同学前往北爱尔兰就读，与在地英国人聊天时，竟然称 呼对方为English，不仅使对方拂袖而去，更是严重的负面国民外交。甚至有耳闻一些因为 类似称呼错误的外籍学生，与当地人产生许多的肢体与言语冲突。对于刚到英国或计划到 英国念书的学子而言，对于英国的社会文化背景应该有一定程度的关心与了解。英国自从1 997年五月工党上台以后，提倡地方分权(devolution)，曾分别在苏格兰与威尔斯举办公民 投票，结果都是超过半数居民赞成争取更大的自主权。苏格兰恢复自己在爱丁堡的国会(Pa rliament)，同时将拥有除国防与外交以外的相当大自主权，包括征税权。而威尔斯则可成 立「国民议会」(National
Assembly)，位阶不如苏格兰国会高，但将拥有更多处理属于自 身事务如教育与医疗福利的权利。因此对于在英国境内的不同国家而言，许多办法和法令 并不尽相同，如移民与工作条例。英国基本上是一个自由与法治的国家，一切依法行事， 只要不逾越法律许可的范围，都享有极大的自由。另外，就民族性而言，英国人生性保守 ，相当尊重传统，因而保留着相当多的古迹、传统文物与各式各样的博物馆，对于传统事 务的保存更是不遗余力，尽管这造成了许多人力与物力的消耗，但仍受到一般英国民众的 支持，而成立许多信托基金来维持传统文物的保存，如National
Trust。与同为英语系国家 相比，英国的社会与民族性与美国便有极大的差异，以一般生活 水准而言，其现代化、舒适化的程度均赶不上美国，一般日常办事效率亦难与美国相比。 英国人不若美国人那般开朗率直，也不会主动与陌生人搭讪，其出发点是着重不探人隐私 。英国人若与陌生人攀谈，也会相当保留，而且话题常围绕在天气打转，因为这是最不触 及隐私的题材。一般而言，英国人不若美国人那么容易交上朋友，但一旦交上了一为英国 朋友，可能就是一辈子的朋友。英国人颇以自己的传统文化为荣，并常缅怀其光荣历史， 重视具有艺术和文化内涵的休闲生活。 就整个社会而言，上流社会的贵族与巨富阶级、中 产阶级和劳工阶级之间的界线划分与阶级意识仍相当明显，贫富间的差距也相当悬殊。这 种现象特别反映在学校制度上，一些环境与设备特佳、师资优良但学费奇昂的寄宿学校或 公学(Public
School)，如伊顿公学，只有有钱人子女才读得起，一般经费拮据、设备不足的 公立学校(State
School)很难望其项背。 英国在十九世纪大英帝国时代号称是日不落国，盛极一时，到了二十世纪国势却逐渐没落 。在国力与经济发展上，已不及美国。即使如此，英国在国际政治与外交上的实力仍不可 小覤，而居于国际财务金融与银行保险业领导中心的地位也仍牢不可破。历史古迹与文物 的丰富，以及文化艺术活动的兴盛蓬勃，使英国成为观光旅游的大国。观光与休闲业成为 英国最大产业之一，每年产值超过360亿英镑，占国内生产总毛额(GDP) 的5%，更提供了 150万个工作机会。 在高等教育与学术研究方面，英国的知名大学拥有世界最优秀的一流学者，尤其在一些传 统的基础学科方面，英国学者的学术造诣与成就绝不在美国或其他欧陆国家学者之下。英 国的高等教育一向是菁英主义取向，追求某一学门领域内的卓越与登峰造极，因而培养了 众多顶尖的专家学者。另外，丰富的历史文化资源与深厚的人文传统，也是留学英国众多 优点之一。如何利用英国这项独特的优势，在英国求学期间，一方面让自己学有专精，一 方面又能优游于英国，甚至沉浸于整个欧洲浓郁的艺术氛围与精致的文化生活之中，也是 每个留英同学可以订下的目标。 英国自从1997年五月工党赢得大选，首相布莱尔开始执政 以来，蓄意改革，气象一新。为了重振英国的声威，布莱尔在政治、社会、经济、教育各 方面都展开了改革。特别是教育方面，该年七月发表教育白皮书，公布其新政府教育建设 蓝图。而首相布莱尔更公开承诺在其任内将让五十万人口接受高等教育，并期望在2002年 任期届满之前，大幅提高大学生在同龄人口中的比例到35%，并努力将英国的教育素质提 升至西方第一，从2001年的大选结果中，布莱尔首相仍继续肩负未来英国发展的重任，教 育将是他主要的施政重点之一。
英国的历史文化虽然不及中国悠久，但她对世界文明的影响却不亚于中国。从政治方面来 说，英国是近代宪政民主的发源地，英国的国会(Parliament)
开启了代议民主与内阁制民主 的典范。英国的文学与戏剧从莎士比亚、狄更斯以降，其作品译为各国文字，为世人传诵 ，家喻户晓。英国在科技发展上，同样为世界文明作出贡献，从牛顿的万有引力定律、开 启工业革命发明蒸汽机的瓦特，到复制动物成功的威尔莫特，展现了英国科技实力的基础 深厚。今日的留学和古代的取经都是要学人之长，以补己之短，英国除在人文学科方面有 深厚的传统外，在现代科技方面也有不断的创新与突破，这些都值得我们用心去学习。
国医疗保健
： 热 医疗保健 英国的国民健保制度 (National Health Service,简称
NHS) 为具有社会福利性质的公医制度。自二次世界大战后 ，五○年代便开始实施，迄今已有半个世纪之久。由英国政府所设立且资助的国民健保制度 ，包括两个层级的医疗体系，即是以社区为主的第一线医疗网(Community-based
primary health care)，通常为于社区驻诊提供医疗保健的一般家庭医师(General
Practitioner, GP) 及护士，第二层则为NHS的医院服务(Hospital-based specialist
services)，由各科的专科医 师负责并接手由GP所转介(refer)的病人，或处理一些重大的意外事故及急诊者。由于中国 不是英国所谓「医疗互惠国」(with
reciprocal health agreements)，因此受到一项限制即 是：对于来自非英国所谓的「医疗互惠国」的人民，NHS医疗服务适用对象只限在英修习 课程六个月以上的学生及其眷属；至于居住不满六个月者，则须自费就医或购买医疗保险 ，但在紧急情况下须看急诊时，则为免费。目前由NHS负担的费用大约包括：家庭医师的 诊疗费、住院医疗费（但部份住院费用与项目仍需自费）、产前检查与生产医护费用等。 由于英国施行医药分业，在就诊后，可持医师所开处方签至药局买药，除了16岁以下儿童 、19岁以下全时学生、老人、残障人士或孕（产）妇已获医药免费证明外，须自行负担药 价。至于私人的医疗服务方面，由于英国的看诊方式通常以预约（appointment）方式进行 （假如非急需就诊），可能被排在NHS医院的冗长的等待就诊名单内，因此为获得较快、 较佳的医疗服务，有人会考虑自费接受私人提供的医疗，有些民众也以购买私人的医疗保 险来负担此部份的可能相当高额的开支，至于应买那一家的医疗保险，可能需花些时间搜 集资料作比较，或请教有经验的人，但以价格合理及有良好服务声誉为原则。 选择家庭医师 (GP)、注册手续、看诊方式、急诊、转介： 1. 如何取得家庭医师的名单：假如学校已设有健康医疗服务中心，可直接在学校注册，但 若因住宿地方较远，或学校无保健中心，则可在居家附近诊所注册，至于从何处获得诊所 名单及地址？下列处所可以一试：宿舍管理员、当地保健局(local
Family Practitioner Committee)、当地社区保健委员会(local
Community Health Council)、市民谘询局(Citizens
Advice Bureau)、药房(如Boots)、邮局及公立图书馆等， 而这些单位的电话可于电话簿找到，或到您住处归属的市政局(City
Council)查询；至于该 如何选择注册诊所？可以向邻居、友人探询，若不成，可就近找一处诊所先注册，因为您 可以在无任何特殊理由下要求更换医师。
2. 若选定适当的诊所(surgery)，宜及早前往注册。应携带的文件包括您的护照和入学许可 ，以证明您的身份，诊所的接待员(receptionist)会请您填写相关表格。接着会安排由护士 来替您做健康检查，基于防治的观念，有时护士会建议相关疫苗的注射等，如果同意，就 会替您填写另一张表格，届时可持此表至排定的医院注射；在完成这些手续后，会在两周 内收到 NHS医疗卡(NHS medical card)，卡上会有您的医疗号码、当地家庭医疗服务局(local
Family Health Services Authority, FHSA)的名称与地址，卡的背后有一些重要的资讯可供参考，例如一旦无法找到 医师可注册时，您的 FHSA将有义务提供协助。 3. 至诊所(surgery)看诊或请求出诊(home visits)：平常看GP前，您可以电话预约，但若遇 紧急情况时，亦可于当日打电话至诊所柜台表示情况特殊等理由要求看诊，有些诊所的政 策会留一时段以供无法预约却又急需看诊者；GP看诊时通常会问及有何问题、症状何时开 始、变化情形及过去有无类似情形等，所以前往GP时，先理出与病情可能有关的讯息，以 供GP参考，GP会视情形开立处方(prescription)或建议，并提醒您若症状未获改善的话于 多少日内回诊。一旦因病情无法至诊所看诊时，您可要求您的 GP出诊，但最好于早上十点以前(紧急情况则除外)通知医师并告知症状细节；但若非诊疗 时间，有些诊所会有值班人员及GP，可能就您的病情提出适当的建议；一旦是非常紧急时 且需立即处理者，则可至医院看急诊。 4. 要注意的是，随着战后殖民地的纷纷独立导致岁入减少，加上英国本身国力的衰退，免 费的公医制度所提供的医疗水准也大不如前，加上大牌医生纷纷 出走，专心于接受私费病 人，使得英国的公医体系特别是基层医疗体系呈现出严重的医事人员短缺，主要的原因也 在于NHS付给医生、护士的薪水偏低。为弥补医事人员的空洞，英国便大量地从前殖民地 如印度、巴基斯坦和非洲国家如奈及利亚、辛巴威等第三世界国家引进从昔日英国人设立 的医学院毕业的医师前来英国执业。这批医师良莠不齐，总的来讲，要比正牌英国医生水 准差了很多，甚至远不及国内的医师水准，故国内同学到英国来求学，虽然享受免费的医 疗服务，但需有心理准备，天下没有白吃的午餐。您的家庭医师的水准可能不及国内的普 通医科专科医师。加上语言的隔阂，急病或重病被GP延误的情形并不是没有可能发生，因 此笔者建议，有需要时不妨听听second
opinion，问问在英国进修的中国医师朋友，甚至 打电话回国内问问医师都是值得的。 5. 急诊情况：遇有重大伤害或立即威胁生命的状况时，请速拨999叫救护车(Ambulance Please)并报上姓名、电话及住址；若当事人仍可自行前往医院的急诊处(Casualty
Department或叫Accident
and Emergency Department, 简称A&E
Department)，即可至急 诊服务处(Casualty
Reception)挂号，而急诊先后处理顺序是依病情严重性分类，但由于服 务需求量大，不少人有候诊数小时的经验。按照NHS的规定英国医院的的急诊处不得拒收 病人，而且完全免费，连药费都不必付。其实可以善加利用。建议同学一旦住处决定后， 最好能知道住处附近至少一家有急诊处的医院及其交通路线。若是在大城市如伦敦或爱丁 堡，有一家以上的医院可供选择时，最好选择前往大学附设医院急诊处就诊，而不要去地 区医院 (District General Hospital, 简称DGH) 。一般而言大学医院设备较好，医师也较高明。 6. 转介至专科医师(Specialist)：由于GP是第一线医师，任何的转介均须从GP开 始，若GP 认为患者情况超出其诊治范围时，会将患者转介至相关的医院及应转介至那一科，待一切 手续排定后，医院会寄给您一张通知单、相关的细节及预约时间；另一种情形可能您认为 有必要进一步检验，但GP却不如此认为 时，而您仍认为有转介与专科医师的必要时，可以试着去说服GP。然而要有心理准备，从 家庭医师转诊到专科医师，等候的时间(Waiting
list) 可以长至十二到十八个月。 7. 口译者(Interpreter)的需求：若就诊时，遇上语言沟通有困难且确需人协助翻译，可向GP 或专科医师提出此需求，该位口译者的一切费用会由NHS支付， 由于英国是一个多元民族 与文化的国家，因此在一些NHS的地区健康医疗机构，也招募并训练这些口译员，而他们 有替任何的求诊者保密的义务。 牙医 由于NHS提供的牙医诊疗费及材料费的成本较低于该科之成本，因此英国的牙科已趋向私 人诊所。由 NHS给付的项目在一定金额内是免费的，而19岁以下，一旦医师认为有做牙齿矫正需要时 ，此项医疗亦为免费。但并非每一个人持有NHS医疗卡，就可享有NHS免费(或部份付费)牙 医服务，您仍必须向NHS另外申请证明(Certificate)，申请表(HC1)可在邮局、诊所或部份 的眼镜公司取得。由于申请表内容相当繁琐，可请教有经验者。此项证明提供一些医疗福 利，不妨一试；不过至NHS的牙医诊所，您可能要有排长龙的心理准备。英国的牙医在牙 医系毕业后，不需要住院医师训练，只要两年工作经验，即可自行开业，因此，有些牙医 师的技术并不十分高明。所以，笔者建议同学们在出发前就把牙齿整理好，该补的补，该 拔的拔，假牙都在国内做好。 虽然在英国就医可以有NHS的保障，但与国人的就医习惯与 方式，仍难免有所不同，因此一旦遇有困难时，不妨多请教朋友、同学或老师；然而「预 防重于治疗」，别忽略身心的保健，均衡的饮食、适度的运动，以及适当的情绪与压力舒 解的方式，均对身体及心理健康有所帮助。也谨在此预祝各位同学学业顺利，早日学成归 国。 英国的饮食文化
： 热 当代英国烹饪集全球各种烹饪风味与传统之大成，可提供多种令人垂涎的佳肴。 英国悠久的好客传统不仅迎来了世界各地的人们，也引进了他们的传统烹饪方式、食品、 调料和食谱。以前你想到的只有炸鱼和薯条的地方，现在你可以选择意大利面食、墨西哥 馅饼、西班牙肉菜饭、咖喱食品、考斯科斯（素食品）。英国超级市场供应来自世界各地 的各种蔬菜、水果、香料、调味品、无数特种食品小商店出售各国食品。人们对食品及烹 饪的兴趣越来越大。厨师也已成为社会名人，其中许多人在电视上主持自己的烹饪节目， 普及新的菜肴。众多不同文化和不同少数民族的节日活动也促进了诸如加勒比、西非等不 同烹饪风格的流行。 英国的饮食种类反映了一年中各个季节的特点。例如，在冬季，焖炖类、烧烤和蒸锅类饮 食较为流行，到了夏季，沙拉和较清淡的食物颇受青睐。英国超市连锁店一年四季都进口 许多食品，还储存各种在英国已过了时令的蔬菜、色拉和水果。 合理安排膳食 初到英国，由于中英两国的饮食方式和习惯很不相同，你可能会觉得不适应，但记住科学 的饮食是在异国保持健康之道。建议你合理安排每天的膳食： 多吃水果和蔬菜。 吃一些主食，如面包、土豆、大米、面条或通心粉。 吃一些高蛋白质食物，如豆制品、鸡蛋、鱼或肉类。 吃一些鲜奶制品、奶酪或酸奶。 我们常说“饮食文化”，可见饮食也是文化的重要组成部分。要了解英国，也应该去了解英国 的饮食，时间长了，你会发现在英国好吃的食物其实真不少：Fish
and Chips ，Cream Tea ，Jacket
Potato ，Cheese Cake …… 英国的多元文化也反映在吃上，中餐、印度菜都倍受欢迎，而源自法国、意大利、泰国、 印尼、日本及韩国的美味也会引你垂涎。但动辄
10 镑的餐费，会让你不得不算计一下。当 然，如果条件许可，你也可以自己动手，饱餐美食。大米、蔬菜可以到超市或露天市场购 买，后者的价格会公道一些，调料可以在当地的中国食品店购得。 寄居英国家庭 寄居英国家庭的外国学生将与其英国家庭一起吃同样的饭菜。当然英国家庭在做饭时也会 考虑外国学生宗教或其它方面的饮食要求。 英国厨房的排烟扇一般都是为油烟较少的西餐设计的，所以炒菜时一定要关好隔烟门，否 则灵敏的火灾报警系统很有可能引来救火员，那就会很尴尬了。有些寄宿家庭因为怕油烟 而不欢迎你做中国菜，所以，选择寄宿家庭时要问清楚。 私立寄宿学校 私立寄宿学校的伙食费都包括在学费内。如果你的孩子有宗教或其它方面的特殊饮食要求 ，学校会按其需要提供特殊饮食。你可以通过私立学校信息服务处（ISIS）网站数据库查找 到这些学校。 大学和延续教育学院 绝大多数院校设有学生餐厅，提供各种较便宜但营养丰富的午餐和晚餐，这些饭朦胧通常 至少包括一份蔬菜和一份欧洲或国际菜肴。学生会往往也经营自己的咖啡屋和餐厅。 各院校的入学须知中可能会介绍该校为不同宗教的学生提供的饮食情况。如果你愿意自己 做饭，学校通常会向你提供带有自炊设备的宿舍。 去哪里找中国食品？ 除了中国餐馆，在伦敦市中心，曼彻斯特，利兹等大城市的中国城（China
Town）都有中 国超市。在这些市场内有大部分中国商品。 在大型西式超市中也有东方的食物和配料出售。学生可以在Sainsbury和Tesco找到干面条 、豆腐、酱油、春卷、中国的香料和调料等 在英国文化和娱乐
： 热 初到异国他乡，面对陌生的环境、迥异的文化习俗、初识的朋友，有时难免会遇到这样 或那样的问题。特别是由于中英文化上的差异，你的一些言行难免会引起学校老师、同学 或房东的不理解。那么，怎么样才能避免误解，尽快融入英国社会呢？以下是几点有用的 建议，希望能对将要赴英或者已经在英求学的同学有点帮助。 语言与交流 英国人很有幽默感，有时他们在调侃的时候，可能看起来很严肃。他们善于自嘲，但绝不 会对别人的不幸幸灾乐祸。 隐私对于英国人来说十分重要。个人问题，例如婚姻、恋爱关系、财政、健康等话题应当 避免。 谈正事时，喜欢直接切入主题，表达意见也不愿拐弯抹角。英国人说“no”的时候，他们要 说的正是这个意思，并非要讨价还价。
英国不同地区的人可能有不同的口音。某些口音可能很重，让在家乡听惯了标准英语的中 国学生难以听懂。一些学生可能会觉得在电话上交流比当面交谈更难。达到有效交流的办 法是：有疑问的时候，不要害怕打断对方并提问。必要的时候询问拼写，尤其是人名和地 名。 人们在日常对话中可能会用俗语。中国学生对这些俗语不熟悉，甚至不明白。例如，
"Loo"指厕所（WC），"Tube"指地铁（metro），"Tea"在某些情况下指正餐，
"Pants" 指 内衣裤。人们说"flat"而不是"apartment"。"To let"的意思是"供出租"。在非正式的场合，常 用"Cheers"代替"Thank you"。当人们说 "lovely"、 "brilliant"、 "magnificent"的时候，他们 的意思是"yes"。 风俗礼仪与生活习惯 英国人很自觉地遵守公共秩序。需要等待时会自觉排队。在自动提款机旁，人们会有意识 地与正在使用机器的人保持合理的距离。在拥挤的地方，人们习惯尽量保持距离，避免碰 撞。 在自动扶梯上会自觉靠右站好，以便急于通行的人从左侧通过。 英国人彬彬有礼，提出请求时说“please”，接受了帮助或服务后说“thank you”，无论事情 多么微不足道。 拜访朋友前要提前通知对方，不速之客会让人讨厌。避免在晚上10点后打电话到别人家。 尽量避免在室内吸烟。如果你确实想吸烟，应该先征得其他人的许可。
到英国人家中做客，应准时赴约，并应准备一些小礼物送给主人，早到会被认为是不礼貌 的。餐后应留下来进行社交谈话，如果一吃完就告辞是非常不礼貌的。
安静地吃东西并且吃完自己餐盘里的所有食物是礼貌的行为。把刀叉平行放在餐盘上表明 你已经吃完了。如果你没吃完，就把刀和叉分开呈“八”字形放在餐盘上。
英国人喜欢在吃饭的时候聊天。但要注意，吃东西的时候张大嘴，哪怕是说话，是不礼貌 的行为。诀窍是：吃东西和说话交替进行；只往嘴里放少量食物。如果你必须张大嘴，请 用一只手遮挡它。 英国人不吃动物的头、足和内脏器官，所以他们形象地称，他们只吃动物的肉，而不吃动 物。 在英国人的食物中马铃薯替代米饭作为主要的碳水化合物。如果不习惯用餐时吃马铃薯， 不要不好意思要米饭。 酒吧是英国人喜欢与朋友相聚的社交中心。中国学生可能会被邀请出去“喝一品脱”(go
out to have a pint)，作为与英国学生社交的开始。
"Do It
Yourself"（D.I.Y.自己动手）和园艺是许多英国人的爱好，因为在英国人工非常昂贵 。如果主人在自己的花园上化了很多工夫，他们很可能会为它感到骄傲。因此，恭维他们 的花园是进行进一步谈话的很好的开始。
在餐馆和商店中 在自助快餐店中，顾客在餐后应当收拾废弃物。 英国人喜欢明码标价，不喜欢讨价还价。 英国人有付小费的习惯。通常在餐厅要按帐单的10％左右付，给行李员小费按每件行李50 p付，给出租车司机可以按票价的10%-15%付，理发一般付2镑，饭店旅馆等若帐单中不含 服务费，应将10％的费用分别付给对你有帮助的工作人员。影剧院、加油站等场所无需付 小费。 某些服务需要提前预约，如理发、美容、配眼镜等。若不提前24小时取消预约，顾客可能 需支付取消费。预约前应当问清楚。 英国的主要公共假日： Holiday 2005
2006 New Year Day 3 January in lieu of 1st (1日周末，倒休至3日) 2 January in lieu of 1st (1日周末，倒休至2日) Good Friday 25 March 14 April Easter Monday 28 March 17 April May Day Bank Holiday 2 May 1 May Spring Bank Holiday 30 May 29 May Summer Bank Holiday 29 August 28 August Christmas Day 25 December 25 December Boxing Day 26 December 26 December Bank Holiday 27 December 英国的时间 GMT 是(Greenwich
Mean Time)的缩写，中文叫“格林威治标准时间”，它既是英国的标准时间， 也是世界各地时间的参考标准。 中英两国的标准时差为8小时，即英国的当地时间比中国的北京时间晚8小时。 BST 是(British
Summer Time)的缩写，即“英国夏时制”，比GMT快一小时，每年从三月底开始 ，到十月底结束。夏时制期间，中英两国的时差为7小时。 社交活动： 英国的社会生活丰富多彩。你也可以参与这些活动，从而更多的了解英国的社会与文化。 你也不需要放弃自己的宗教信仰，因为英国很多人信仰各种不同的宗教，世界上一些主要 的宗教团体遍布英国各地。英国同时是一个拥有多种族文化的国度，在那里你可以与来自 世界各地不同文化的人们交朋友。 如果你在伦敦地区学习，你就可以享用到国际学生家庭这一组织的很多服务。它每天对外 开放，为国际学生组织各种多种多样的文化娱乐活动。举个例子，如果你精力充沛的话， 你可以到它的健身中心每天锻炼。
很多国际学生在英学习期间，希望有机会到英国家庭作客，了解他们的文化与生活方式。 东道主（HOST）就是专为国际学生提供这项服务的一个组织。你可以向它申请去在英国任 何一个城镇的家庭，度过周末或利用假期小住几日，享受客人的待遇，并且只需要负担旅 途的费用。 很多人也想尝试一下在英国的夜生活：英国有很多酒吧，俱乐部，放松一下并交些朋友； 若你想看电影，英国大部分城镇都有电影院；若你想尝试一些新奇的事物，你可以去听一 场摇滚音乐会或看一场音乐剧，别忘了你都可以享受学生优惠。 购物： 购物将成为你在英国生活中的一个重要组成部分，对某些人而言也是一种享受。在英国很 多城镇都有大型的购物中心，可以买到各种生活必需品。 购买食物是其中重要的一环，很多超市都可以买到来自世界各国的食品，选择多样。在一 些街市、菜市场则可以买到便宜而新鲜的食品。对中国学生而言，几乎各大城市都能买到 中国的调味品、蔬菜水果和其他食品，关键就看你的厨艺了！ 在英国你可以买到不同档次不同品位的衣服，很多商店有价格合理、质量上乘的衣服出售 。你也可以到一些慈善机构开设的二手商店买到一些便宜的衣服，并可以还价。英国的天 气变化十分频繁，很多人初到英国时，因为不适应这种多变的气候而生病。为此在衣着方 面，我们建议你身边常备保暖的衣物和雨具，同时衣服应穿成多层，方便随时脱、穿，适 应温度的变化。 在校园里也有不少食品店、书店， 甚至是旅行社，如果你学业繁忙没有时间到市区购物， 你也可以在这些校区内的便利店里购买到生活必需品。 英国的天气情况
： 热 英国的气候 英国是一个气候温和、风景优美的国家。在春、夏、秋、冬四季的循环交替之中，虽说英 国的温度很少超过32度或是低于零下10度，但英国的天气变化十分频繁。刚才还是艳阳高 照，瞬间就会变成大雨倾盆。因此在衣着方面，我们建议你身边常备保暖的衣物和雨具， 同时衣服应穿成多层，方便随时脱、穿，适应气温的变化。 很多人初到英国时，因为不适应这种多变的气候而生病。合理的穿衣方式会帮你尽快适应 英国的环境。 英国各大城市气温及年降雨量表 最高气温（摄氏度） 年降雨量（厘米） 一月 六月 英格兰 Birmingham 6.0 18.8 662.0 Bournemouth 7.4 18.4 784.0 Bradford 5.6 17.5 873.0 Brighton 7.1 17.8 721.0 Bristol 7.0 19.0 779.0 Buckingham 6.4 19.2 625.0 Cambridge 6.5 20.0 551.0 Canterbury 7.1 19.2 612.0 Derby 6.6 19.2 666.0 Durham 5.8 17.5 651.0 Exeter 8.0 19.1 764.0 Guildford,Surrey 6.7 19.5 668.0 Huddersfield 6.2 18.3 831.0 Hull 6.5 18.7 659.0 Lancaster 5.9 16.7 1094.0 Leicester 5.7 18.6 666.0 Liverpool 6.8 18.1 775.0 London 7.2 20.3 611.0 Luton 5.7 18.7 670.0 Manchester 6.9 18.6 810.0 Newcastle 5.6 16.3 711.0 Norwich 5.7 18.8 612.0 Nottingham 5.9 18.7 707.0 Oxford 6.6 19.6 633.0 Plymouth 8.5 17.6 982.0 Portsmouth 7.5 18.8 685.0 Preston 6.4 17.8 1004.0 Reading 6.7 19.4 639.0 Sheffield 6.1 18.5 816.0 Southampton 7.7 19.6 754.0 Stafford 6.0 18.4 675.0 Sunderland 6.4 15.5 613.0 Warwick 6.4 19.4 584.0 York 6.1 18.5 588.0 苏格兰 Aberdeen 5.7 15.4 752.0 Dundee 5.7 17.4 701.0 Edinburgh 6.4 17.0 638.0 Glasgow 5.2 17.2 1044.0 Stirling 5.9 17.8 975.0 威尔士 Aberystwyth 8.0 16.9 914.0 Bangor 7.3 17.6 1107.0 Cardiff 7.5 19.2 1061.0 Newport 6.1 17.8 1442.0 Swansea 7.7 18.2 1178.0 北爱尔兰 Belfast 7.1 17.4 951.0 Londonderry 6.7 16.2 935.0 中国 北京 1.0 29.0
62.7 上海 8.0 27.0
158.0 广州 17.0 30.0
170.7 重庆 10.0 28.0
109.0 英国交通和旅游
： 热 对于很多同学来说，在英国的首次旅行将会从Heathrow,
Gatwick或者Stanstead机场到伦 敦市中心或其附近的城市。 从Heathrow机场出发 Heathrow是世界上最繁忙的机场之一，与之配套的公共交通十分发达。初来乍到，不免会 感到眼花缭乱，不知所措。下面介绍一下从Heathrow机场到伦敦及伦敦以外地区的交通方 式。 从Heathrow机场到伦敦市中心 通常有以下几种交通方式可供选择：
Heathrow
Express火车，是从Heathrow到伦敦Paddington车站最快捷的方式，每15分钟 一班，15分钟可达Paddington站，单程车费为十四英镑。 伦敦地铁(London Underground)，当地人称之为“The Tube”。你可以通过伦敦的地铁网 到达伦敦的各个角落，到达伦敦中心需50－60分钟。伦敦地铁有十一条线，形如网状，十 分方便。4.4镑的车票可以让你在一天内随意乘车。伦敦的地铁图详见附录。 但是拖着大包小包在地铁站里转车，会是件艰巨的任务。
的士(Taxi)，乘的士固然方便，但从机场搭乘的士到伦敦市中心贵得令人心痛：起码得45 英镑。 巴士(Coach)，是最便宜的交通方式。虽然花的时间长些，但当你携带着大包小包的行李 时，乘巴士要比地铁省力很多。你应根据你的目的地，选择合适的巴士路线，如果不清楚 ，可以到咨询处(Information)查询。Airbus Express A1线前往Victoria火车站，A2线前往Euston车站。 从Heathrow机场去伦敦以外的地区 前往伦敦以外的区域，根据不同的目的地，可以选择以下三种方式：乘坐巴士、火车或飞 机。 巴士 Heathrow有到各大城镇的巴士，也有去Woking和Reading火车站的巴士，你可以通过这两 个火车站中转前往英国的西部、中部和北部。你也可以从Heathrow乘车到伦敦的Victoria汽 车站进行中转。 如果查询英国国家快运系统长途汽车的时间与费用，以及在线预定程序，请访问： http://www.nationalexpress.co.uk/natxhome.htm 火车 伦敦有六个火车站，每个火车站都对应英国的某一地区而设。因此你首先要从Heathrow乘 巴士或地铁到达你的中转车站。 你的目的地 伦敦的中转车站 Birmingham, Blackpool, Carlisle, Chester, Coventry, Glasgow,
Lancaster, Liverpool, Manchester, Preston Euston Aberdeen, Cambridge, Derby, Edinburgh, Hull, Leeds,
Leicester, Loughborough, Newcastle, Nottingham, Sheffield, York Kings Cross and St.
Pancras Bath, Bristol, Cardiff, Exeter, Oxford, Penzance, Plymouth,
Reading, Swansea Paddington Bournemouth, Portsmouth, Salisbury, Southampton, Weymouth,
Winchester Waterloo Canterbury, Dover, Margate, Ramsgate CharingCross Brighton, Eastbourne, Gatwick, Maidstone, Worthing Victoria 欲查询英国铁路路线、时刻表及网上购票，请访问：http://www.nationalrail.co.uk。本书附 录中收录有英国铁路路网图。 1.火车票分为一等和二等，一等票比二等票约贵50％。二等票的座位已经相当舒服，大多 数英国人买的都是二等票。 2.乘坐火车提前买票可以得到许多折扣，如提前14天、7天、3天、1天等，越早买票得到的 优惠越多。购买火车票可以买单程也可以买往返，一般往返票会有不少优惠，有时，甚至 比单程票还便宜。 3.另外，英国铁路运营商针对不同的乘客出售不同的火车卡，使持卡人能够在乘坐铁路旅 行时享受三分之一或更多的优惠，请访问：http://www.railcard.co.uk
飞机 如果你乘坐英国本土的航空公司运营的航班，并且购买的是北京或上海至伦敦的往返机票 ，航空公司将免费提供飞往英国另一城市的转机服务。请在定票时提前和航空公司确认可 以免费转机的城市。 从Gatwick机场出发 Gatwick机场离伦敦较远，到伦敦市中心最快捷的方法是搭乘特快火车(Gatwick
Express)到 Victoria直通车站，全程约30分钟，单程车费为12英镑。你也可以乘坐Connex South Central公司经营的火车前往伦敦。 如果你的目的地不是伦敦，从Gatwick可以直接搭乘巴士或火车。Gatwick有通往英国大多 数城镇的巴士，另外有火车可以直达很多大城市，如Birmingham,
Manchester, Reading等 城市。 从Stanstead机场出发 Stanstead是伦敦三个机场中离伦敦市区最远的一个。也许正因为如此，它通常旅客较少， 是出入最快的一个机场。到伦敦市区最快捷的方式是搭乘Stanstead
Sky Train火车，每30 分钟一班。同样Stanstead也有通往英国大多数城镇的巴士网络以及前往各大城市的直达火 车。 如果要查询英国的列车线路，时刻表，汽车出租，长途汽车与渡船服务，以及英国的住宿 等方面的信息，请访问：http://www.ukonline.co.uk/content/travel.html 在英国旅行 乘飞机旅行 伦敦附近有希斯罗(Heathrow)、盖特威克(Gatwick)和斯坦斯特德(Stansted)三大机场。 英国其他主要国际机场是卡地夫(Cardiff)、爱丁堡(Edinburgh)、格拉斯哥(Glasgow)、贝尔 法斯特(Belfast)、曼彻斯特(Manchester)、伯明翰(Birmingham)和阿伯丁(Aberdeen)。所 有这些机场彼此之间开有航班，也有航班前往世界各大城市。
乘火车及长途汽车旅行 英国各城市之间有快捷高效的铁路网络和多班次的长途汽车相联。各种旅行特价票，能使 你在一定时期和距离，不受限制地旅行，从而为你到各处旅行提供了方便。详情可查询旅 行社，主要火车站或国内特快（National
Express，一种全国范围的长途汽车服务公司）。 四通八达的高速公路网联系着英国主要城镇，你可以乘坐汽车、摩托车或长途客车，很方 便地到达英国各个地区。想在英国驾驶小汽车或摩托车的话，你必须持有一个有效的驾驶 执照并且年龄在17岁以上。（年龄在16岁可以驾驶一种特制自行车Moped）。有关驾驶执 照详情请查询汽车与车辆牌照局（DVLA)。请注意英国使用英里计算距离。将英里数除以 五再乘以八，便可换算成公里数。例如，五十英里相当于八十公里。
骑自行车 如果你打算在英国骑自行车，可能的话可以参加 “ 熟悉在英骑车情况的课程 ” 。这些课程 有时由地方当局提供。他们将告诉你如何安全骑自行车。欲知当地开办的这种课程情况， 请查询你的院校的学生会。 步行 英格兰、威尔士、苏格兰和北爱尔兰的各个景点和国家公园是步行赏景、健身的理想之地 。四通八达的交通网络，使人们前往所有这些地方都很方便。 相关网站： 汽车与车辆牌照局（DVLA)网站：www.open.gov.uk/dvla 国内特快长途汽车公司网站：www.gobycoach.com 铁路网站（有关铁路服务的信息）：www.railtrack.co.uk/travel 车票价格与如何买票？ 车票价格 下面说说坐火车要用多少钱吧.英国的火车票价都分单程(Single)和往返(Return)两种.而往 返车票比单程车票只贵几十便士而已,比如一张单程票4镑的话,当日往返票大概是4.3镑而已 .所以你除非知道自己不回来,否则买往返票当然便宜的多.有些较长的旅行还有5日往返票和 20日往返票可供选择。 假设你已经有了青年火车证,那麽一段10分钟的旅程大概票价是2镑往返(人民币: 30元,港币: 26元,新台币: 112元).一段1小时左右的旅行大概是10镑往返(人民币:
150元,港币: 130元,新 台币: 560元).一段两小时的旅程大概是25镑往返(人民币: 1.5元,港币: 1.3元,新台币: 5.6元). 较短旅程的票价一般很固定,而连接两个城市之间(如伦敦到爱丁堡)的火车的票价则变化很 大,不同时间的价格都不一样.但不论怎样,你在工作日的早上10点之前坐火车都会比平时贵 很多且不可用火车证.笔者一次早上去苏格兰,买票的大叔说8点的车145镑,9点的车90镑!着 实把笔者下了一跳.于是’大叔’建议我坐10点的,只要66镑,又可以用青年火车证.所以只要44 镑.44镑同145镑相差多少!大家要是没有急事,千万不要在工作日的10点前坐火车。 如何买票？ 一般来说,车票只要在上车前买就可以了.除非您去很远的地方,要提前问一下,因为不同的时 间票价相差很多.否则一般的旅行都是当时买票就可以啦.车票可以在Ticket Point(售票处)买 ,当然更方便的是在自动售票机购买.左边有如何使用自动售票机的说明.当然如果您有青年 火车证的话,不要忘记选择Young-person的按键啦.自动售票机接受硬币和5镑10镑纸币.如 果您只有20镑的纸币,或是您想用信用卡/借记卡或支票支付的话,就只有到Ticket Point买票 啦,只要说出你想去的地名,告诉他/她是Single(单程)还是Return(往返),如果你有青年火车证, 再告诉她/他你是"Young Person"就OK了。 上车以后,并不是一定有人查票的.这些公司收入不景气的时候就会查得严格,收入稍好就没 人查票了.但千万不要碰这个运气,虽然一般情况那个Conductor不会说什麽,卖你张票就好了 ,但要小心火车公司每个季度会起诉200个不买票的人。 如果你是为了赶火车,那就上车后再买票也没关系,最好主动找那个Conductor去买票啦。
伦敦地铁-世界最密集的地铁网 伦敦的地铁网是世界最密集和复杂的.共有273个车站,12条线,几十个交会点.在伦敦的市中 心,走几步就会看到一个地铁站。 如果你第一次坐伦敦的地铁,有可能会被其复杂的结构搞到不知方向.其实,这些地铁站都使 用了非常规范的指示和标志.用颜色,图形标示很清楚.你只要遵从这些指示一定不会迷路的 。 要安排你的地铁旅行,首先你要有一份伦敦地铁图.这种地图可以在英国几乎所有的万用手册 ,旅游指南中找到.更多的您可以在任何一个地铁站免费索取.首先找到起点站和目的地,看看 两点之间是否有由一条同样颜色的线相连.如果有,您就不用换车啦!如果没有的话呢,看看不 同颜色的线是在哪里交汇最近,记住那个站名,不要忘记下车喔.还有要提醒你的是呢,很多线 会在一处分成两条线,不要上错车.比如你从Green park到席斯路机场,一定要看到车头上写 着"席斯路"才上车,不然您可能会被送到离机场很远的Uxbridge,那就有大麻烦了。 车票的价格嘛,单程较近距离是1.40镑 (人民币: 21元,港币: 18.2元,新台币: 78.4元).中间距 离是2.80镑(人民币: 42元,港币: 36.4元,新台币: 156.8元),远距离是3.30镑.火车票不同的是, 地铁的往返票没有任何优惠.所以如果你到伦敦来玩,最好买一张Travel card。 最后要提醒你的是,在伦敦市中心,坐一两站地铁是很不值得的事情.就算你有Travel
Card,不 坐白不坐,但地铁站长长的隧道会让你比在地上走的还远.如果只是一两站距离,还是步行更 快。 如何定购便宜机票？ 同样的航线，机票的价格可以差之千里。就拿伦敦到香港的航线来说，有些经济舱座位有 时可以卖到4000英镑往返，而有些机票则只有300英镑。而英国和欧洲之间的航线有时甚 至可以找到5英镑一张的机票。 因此，把握机会，学会选择，可以为你省下一笔财富。英国留学网虽然不能代你寻找便宜 机票，但可以给你以下Tips,助你找到便宜的机票回家或是旅游。 尽量提早预订机票，最好提前3周以上。越是Last minute的定票，越局限了你的灵活性。 选择在很早或是夜晚起飞的航班，越是在工作时间以外的航班通常票价较低。 短期的往返机票最好包括周六的停留。 如果错过了一家航空公司的特价（Promotion),应该密切注意该公司的竞争对手，一般他们 会很快推出类似的特价机票。 在网上最容易找到便宜的机票，只要你耐心寻找，一定不会让你失望。（可以用我们下面 提供的订票服务） 无论如何不要在High
Street的旅行社订票，而应该选择专为学生开办的旅行社，如STA或 校内的旅行社。如果找不到，可以试试在伦敦唐人街的旅行社，他们有时会有低价学生票 。 避免3月，7，8月。如果不能避免一定要提早2个月以上订票。 伦敦枢纽 London
Connection 英国交通事业的一项最伟大作品大概就是伦敦枢纽(London
Connection)了.来自全国的铁 路在伦敦汇合,与伦敦复杂的地铁网在四十多处相接,组成一个铁路地铁,地上地下连接的密 集型网络.旅客可以在8个主要车站和其它几十处连接点更换火车或地铁.有些铁轨上会既有 火车又有地铁运行。 如果你想从英国北部到南部,或是从东部到西部,你多半会经过伦敦枢纽.也就是说你要从一 个火车站下车,乘地铁到另一个火车站,再从另一个火车站出发.你的火车票有时会包括了地 铁的费用,因此你只需将火车票插入地铁站的票闸(ticket
barriers)就可以通过了。 Travel card 如果你不住在伦敦,要到伦敦游览.在你的启程火车站买一张Travel Card是最划算的选择.这 种车票包含往返火车,无限的地铁和巴士服务.而票价只比单单往返车票贵不到两镑.如果你 想在伦敦游览多日,那就买一张5日往返的车票加一张一周Travel card. Travel card真的是游 览伦敦的最好工具,没有它,伦敦的交通是非常昂贵的。 买Travel Card还要注意伦敦的分区,伦敦的交通分6个区(Zone),1区在最中间,而6区在最外 面.如果你买和火车票在一起的一日Travel card,一般都包括6个区.而单独买的Travel
card则 有选择,你可以只买1/2区,或1234区等等。 英国铁路路网(缩略图) 伦敦地铁图(缩略图) 国际学生卡及各种火车/汽车优惠卡 初到英国，有一卡不能不办，那就是国际学生卡(International
Students Identity Card)。你 可以在任何一间国际学生家庭(International
Students House)或学校的Travel
Agency办理 ，花费为5英镑。ISIC卡最大的优势是可以为你带来各种优惠，那5英镑一会儿就赚回来了 。在英国交通费较为昂贵。ISIC卡可在你购买各种运输票证时获得优惠，也可以在指定餐馆 、旅馆、剧院享受优惠，可谓受益无穷。你也可以在学校的学生会办公室办理上述卡。 在乘坐火车或巴士之前，你可以在车站售票处办理Young
Person Rail Card或Student Coach Card，这样就可以充分享受由此带来的优惠了。 欧洲旅游 英国是前往欧洲其他国家的理想之地，既方便又便宜。你可以乘坐飞机、渡轮或火车通过 海底隧道前往欧洲大陆。城市到城市的旅行也快捷迅速。 每天都有来自世界重要城市的飞机抵达英国机场。英国各大城市均建有地方机场，因此去 英国各地十分方便。频繁有效的航空服务将英国各大城市与许多欧洲城市紧密相联。例如 ，你可以乘飞机从曼彻斯特到阿姆斯特丹，从伦敦到巴黎，从盖特威克到柏林，飞行均只 需一小时左右的时间。从英国乘飞机前往宁静的希腊各岛、中东的历史古迹和东欧的美丽 城市只需三至四个小时。英吉利海底隧道使你可以乘火车前往巴黎和布鲁塞尔。 学生能获得多种折价优惠票。学生会能告诉你其他有关学生特价票的情况。例如，一个很 受欢迎的环游欧洲方式是一张铁路通用卡。持有该卡，你就可以按固定票价一个月之内旅 行二十四个国家。请向旅行社询问一揽子旅游计划。 如果你的学业不是特别紧张，在圣诞节，复活节或者你已经完成了期末考试或毕业论文， 那么请整理你的行囊，让我们离开英伦三岛，踏上探寻欧洲大陆的旅程。 自助游 这种游览欧洲的方式颇受年轻留学生的欢迎，从选择目的地，预定旅馆，交通，申请签证 等一系列的过程中你的网上搜索能力将迅速得到提高，在接下去的行程中可以感受到许多 原先只有在那些文人的西行漫记中才能领略到的欧洲的浪漫与神秘。不难发现自助游的最 大缺点就是麻烦，设计旅游路线、签证申请、车票或机票和住宿的预定、景点名胜的选择 以及安全问题等等，这些都要你自己解决。 随团游 目前在英国有一些比较知名的华人旅行社，专门组织留英的中国学生或其亲戚朋友游历欧 洲。行程从一日至数周不等，旅游的档次与价格，选择多样，丰俭随意。跟团的最大优点 是在最短的时间可以游历欧洲最著名的名胜古迹，并且可以免却自己办理签证的麻烦及语 言的障碍。从导游那里获取景点和国家的重要信息，另外可以享受团体订票的优惠。
申根国旅行签证 从英国签欧洲大陆其他国家还是比较容易的。至于怎么签，请直接去到各个国家驻英大使 馆的网页，上面有最新最权威的资料，照着要求去做，就一定没有问题。怎么查所需网址 呢？ google！(http://www.google.com/，进去就知道怎么用了。) 各个国家对签证申请的要求和手续有一些细微的差别，但大同小异，主要有以下材料需要 准备： 1．护照。 2．在校证明。 3．银行存款证明(Bank
Statement)。 4．机票或旅行社开具的所去目的国的证明(含保险)或 亲友从欧洲大陆发出的邀请信(亲友 在当地警察局领 取表格，填写完后，盖章寄给你)。 5. 签证费。 去一国旅游：只需前往该国使领馆申请“single
entry”，滞留周期取决于旅游行程或邀请信 。 去多国旅游：需前往第一入境国使领馆申请“multi-entry”，滞留周期取决于旅游行程(至 少3国以上)或邀请信。 行前准备 办理国际学生卡(International
Student Identity Card)或青年卡 (Youth
Card)可打折买机票 ，火车票及各类旅游区门票。 购买打折机票：www.omegatravel.ltd.uk
www.wanguk.com 了解住宿信息：可通过上网查询(International
Youth Hostel) http://www.hihostels.com/performLanguage.sma?isocode=en&forward=home http://www.backpackeurope.com/hostels/index.html 购买欧洲火车通票，可随时穿梭于你所去的旅游国。可在Student
Travel Agency www.statravel.co.uk办理。
在英国打工
： 热 如果你的课程为期6个月以上，英国的法律允许你在此期间利用假期全职工作，或在学期中 间兼职工作(每周最多工作20小时)而无需申请工作许可。如果你的配偶的签证期为12个月 以上，他(她)也可以在英国工作。 如果找到工作，你需要向当地的Contribution
Agency申请National Insurance Number，这 个号码主要用于统计你的收入总额，做为纳税的依据。如果你的兼职工作收入超过英国政 府设定的Personal
Allowance(2002/03年的PA为4,615英镑)，你需要交纳超出部分的10％ 作为所得税。 要获得有关短期工作的信息，可以通过以下几条途径： 学校的职业办公室(Careers
Service Office)，可以提供校内外短期和长期职位的信息， 这 些信息所招募的对象为学生 职业中心(Job
Centre)，是学校所在地为公众服务的职业介绍机构，你可以从中找到大量的 就业信息 学校内的广告牌 当地报纸的广告 商店橱窗里的广告，很多商店会在自己的橱窗中张贴招聘广告，留意“Help
Wanted”字样 将你的求职意向告诉你的朋友、老师、房东等，也许他们了解一些招聘信息 相关网站： 英国内政部移民与国籍管理处网站： www.homeoffice.gov.uk/ind/hpg.htm 英国教育与就业部网站的国际学生网页： www.dfee.gov.uk/inter national-students/ 外交与英联邦事务办公室的网站： www.fco.gov.uk 英国教育概况
： 热 英国的教育具有悠久的历史和古老的传统。英国的高等教育起源于700多年前。无论是科研 质量还是毕业生质量在世界上都名列前茅，一直享有盛誉。自1992年政府颁布高等教育改 革议案后，英国大多数的技术学院或理工学院都更名为大学，改名后的大学获取了学位授 予权。英国高等院校根据其性质、特点和学位授予情况分为不同类型。目前有180多所提供 学位课程的院校。 英国学年： 英国学年分为三学期制，学年由9～10月开始，至第二年6～7月结束。三学期的开学 时间分别是 9～10月、1月和4月。 英国学位： 英国学位可分为学士学位(Bachelor
Degree)、硕士学位(Master Degree) 和博士学位(Doctor
of Philosophy)。学士学位或称第一学位，攻读学士学位课程的学生， 通常需要三年时间。 一般而言，学士学位可分为文学学士、理学学士、法学学士和工程学 士等类别。 硕士学位可分为授课形式的学位课程或研究式的学位课程。 授课式硕士学位： 英国大学可以在一年而不是通常两年的时间内拿到硕士学位。这种授课式硕士学位课 程目前已成为英国最受欢迎的课程。攻读授课式硕士课程的学生由专门学术教员以讲大课 、专题报告和辅导形式，对所学科目进行指导，在此基础上进一步开发关键的研究和自学 能力。 研究式硕士学位： 这类学位需要时间一般要长一些，要求进行全新性研究，最后写出论文。攻读研究式 学位需要做很多准备工作。博士研究生将被指定一名导师监督其研究工作。有的导师会提 供许多指导和建议。有的导师则让学生有很大的自由度。通常，在研究的开始阶段学生需 要很多的建议和帮助，但随着时间推移，学生会发现需要见导师的次数会越来越少，当然 这也取决于研究课题的性质。 博士生至少在从事了三年的研究工作后，才可获得博士学位(Ph.D)。 英国大学排名： 英国大学排名是由英国一些媒体根据英国官方高等教育研究机构的数据和报告，结合 媒体自身设立的标准，而建立的英国大学各项指标的质量评估表。通过排名，我们可以获 取学校各方面的信息，可以客观比较大学之间的状况。
最早的英国大学排名是由《泰晤士报》在1992年发布的。随后多家报纸也分别发布了 自己的英国大学排名。到目前为止，有下列报纸发布过各类英国大学排名：《泰晤士报》 The Times、《金融时报》The Finacial Times、《每日电讯报》The Daily Telegraph、《卫报》Guardian等。 其中，《泰晤士报》的英国大学排名由于其悠久的历史和完备的数据被大多数中国留 学生所接受。排名有很多种，最普遍的就是综合排名和专业排名，也很容易区别他们的不 同：综合排名就是看某个学校的综合实力，从学校的教学质量、毕业生比例、研究水平、 到各类硬件设施无所不及。专业排名则是某学校该专业在英国各个大学之间的实力评估。
需要说明的是，英国没有任何官方的大学排名，也就是说：英国大学排名没有绝对权 威可言，只有相对的可参考性，同时不排除有数据的误差和人为因素的影响。我们需要正 确看待排名，保持清醒，不要过于依赖排名的效应。 大学： 英国共有大学近百所，以其高水平的教育和研究闻名于世。绝大多数大学都同工商界 保持着密切的联系。其先进的教育和设备一直吸引着海外学生赴英学习。英国大学都是独 立的自我管理机构，有权设置不同课程和录取学生，并根据开设课程授予学士、硕士和博 士等不同学位。 传统大学和新兴大学： 英国牛津和剑桥大学建于12世纪，是欧洲最古老的大学。圣安德鲁斯大学是苏格兰第 一所大学，建于1411年，随后是格拉斯哥大学，建于1451年。 在19世纪，工业革命席卷全英国，迫切需要科学和技术知识，所以在工业城市建立了 许多新大学。伦敦大学学院建于1826年，是英国第一所不分性别不分宗教信仰录取学生的 大学。曼撤斯特大学建于1851年，随后威尔士大学于1893年，伯明翰大学于1900年，利 物浦大学于1903年，布里斯托大学于1909年，瑞丁大学于1926年相继成立。因为这些大 学建筑物均为砖结构，有别于牛津、剑桥大学的古老石头墙，所以这些大学被称为"红砖"大 学。 二战以后，英国成立了更多的高等学府。诺丁汉大学建于1948年，爱克斯特大学建于 1955年，萨塞克斯大学、华威大学、肯特大学、东安格利亚大学和艾塞克斯大学相继于60 年代成立。这些大学因其现代化建筑而被称作"平板玻璃大学"。 90年代，英国修订法律允许工业技术学院升格为大学，并拥有学位授予权。以前一些 技术学院和理工学院只提供技术和专门职业课程，授予职业证书。现在这些大学与其他老 牌大学相比仍然注重实用的学位课程。他们也与当地工业有广泛联系，并一起开发专门技 术。传统大学则一般固守传统，偏向理论性、学术性学科如哲学、文学和科学。
学院： 英国的学院和高等教育学校产生于70年代，这类学校一般规模与地方都较小，但这类 学校具有关心学生、注重教师与学生联系的特点，它们可提供水平不同、专业不同的各类 课程。除了本科生课程外，学校还设置许多专业性的或为有一定工作经验的学生选读的课 程。 英国教育体系中还设有继续教育内容。这是为16岁以上学生设置的达到普通教育程度 及高级补充程度的课程，许多课程为职业教育。目前共有500所学校开设这类课程，大约有 500万成人就读继续教育课程。在英国教育改革议案中，明确指出学术资格与职业资格在就 业时得到同等承认。 英国的寄宿学校： 真正的英国寄宿学校收费都很昂贵，一般地说，每年最低收费也在人民币20万元以上 ，所以中国学生前往英国读私立寄宿学校的，大都是家境丰厚的成功人士子女。
接受的学生年龄一般要求低于十七周岁。 英国的寄宿学校开设语言中心的不多，并且由于不同国家语言环境和教育体制的不同 ，目前在寄宿国际语言中心学习的中国学生比较多，从而影响学生学习英语。一般建议学 生插读低一年级的班级就读，用此时间来学习语言。如在中国读初中三年级的学生，选择 英国GCSE十年级学习；国内高一的学生读GCSE的十一年级也就是GCSE的最后一年。（ 注：很少有寄宿学校接收学生只读一年GCSE,一般都要读两年） 学生可以在这样的环境下 学习语言和其它课程。以便尽快适应英国的教学方式。 另外，在学生学术水平满足要求的条件下，这些学校一般会根据学生的年龄安排学生 该上哪一年级。一般是十七周岁上高中第一年（Lower
Sixth Form/AS-level）,十八周岁上 高中第二年，也是最后一年（Upper
Sixth Form/A2-level）. 注意寄宿学校的申请时间： 随着英国教育政策越来越倾向于招收外国学生，学校也热衷于开拓海外市场，并且英 国私立学校的名声远播世界，所以每年都有大量的各地学生申请寄宿学校就读，甚至有些 学校的申请需要提前五年以上。建议学生至少提前一年申请，才有可能进入比较理想的寄 宿学校。 英国银行理财
： 热 银行开户应注意事项 异乡求学，往往耗资甚巨，在此情形下，如何选择一家方便、制度佳、可信赖的英国银行 ，来达到事倍功半的效果便成为一件非常重要的事。英国的金融体系发展相当的先进且复 杂。以下将简单介绍英国的银行系统和一些开户前后应注意的事项。
英国银行系统简介 英国银行主要分两大系统，一系统以Barclays
Bank, Bank of Scotland, Royal Bank of Scotland, Lloyds 与一些建筑资金融资合作社(Building
Societies) 为主；另一系统为National
Westminster (NatWest), TSB Bank, Clydesdale Bank, Ulster Bank, Isle of Man Bank, Coutts, Bank Northern, National
Irish Bank, Bank of Ireland, Abbey National, Halifax 与一些建筑资金融资合作社(Building
Societies)。 银行的营业时间 一般约为星期一至星期五，早上九时至下午五时。特别要一提的是英国邮局并无存放款业 务，一般存款都是在银行或是一些建筑资金融资合作社办理。 银行帐户种类大致可分活期 存款帐户(current
account)和定期存款帐户(saving account) 两种。活存帐户存款利率低， 但可随时开支票或提领现金。定存帐户一般定有条款，有最低金额限制，有的提供和活期 存款一样的转帐、支票簿项目。若要提款则需提前九十天或三十天告知(亦有随时可以提款 的instant access)，否则要罚款，但利率较高。 学生帐户(student
account)属活存帐户的一种，一般 只有全时生(full-time
student)有资格申请。英国主要银行如：NatWest、HSBC、Barclays 、Lloyds、Midland、Bank of Scotland、Royal
Bank of Scotland 和Halifax 都有学生帐户 。有的银行如Bank of
Scotland、Royal Bank of Scotland 为吸引学生，特别提供优惠利率 予全时生，可考虑利用。建议读者将日常生活开支存入活存帐户，以供随时取用，另将大 宗存款存入定存，以获取较高利息。 其他活存帐户还有支票帐户(cheque
account)、现金 提款卡帐户、电话存款帐户(Telephone
Banking)和邮政存款帐户(Postal Account) 等等。 后两者限制较多但利率较佳，是利用电话或信件来调度存款，先决条件是必须有另一个活 存帐户供转帐之用，以Sainsbury
Bank、C & G、First Direct、Direct
Line 和Bank of Scotland 较着名。除此之外，夫妻或可考虑办理共同帐户(joint
account)，省却许多不必要 的麻烦。 英国的自动柜员机(Automated
Tell Machine, ATM)有数种，功能相当多，除提款外(可选择 是否需要收据)，还可查询存款余额(Balance)、更改个人密码(Personal Identification
Number, PIN)、存现金、轧支票、付各式帐单(如电话费和信用卡)以及把钱转入不同帐户。 如此一来，大众二十四小时都可使用到必要的服务，相当便民，但并不是每家银行的所有 分行都会提供这些服务。除此之外，大部分的银行都有提供二十四小时的热线服务，提供 顾客查询存款余额、申请新的支票簿和转帐等服务。
开户注意事项 银行开户最好请教一些过来人，以「方便」(地利之便)为主要考量。以英格兰为例，NatWe st 和Barclays 分行较多，在苏格兰则以Bank of Scotland 与Royal Bank of Scotland 为主 。一般大学校园内均有设分行，以方便学生提、存款。银行系统内设电脑连线，跨行提款 、查询存款余额、使用提款机(ATM)均免费，但要注意若是跨系统提款，则需一定的手续费 。 其次考虑因素为「利率」，每家银行提供的各式帐户、利率条件均不同，可参酌个人需 要。除此之外，对学生提供的相关服务也很重要，有的银行在某一范围内，自动给予学生 免利息的透支额度；有的银行申请信用卡较易，这些都是申请时必须一并加以考虑的。 由 于英国银行多，竞争激烈，每年七月到十一月间各家银行都会提出优惠促销吸引学生开户 。促销手段包括信用卡免年费、购买外汇免手续费，更有赠送现金、收音机、折价券、火 车票优惠卡等给新开户学生。建议同学可「货比三家」。但近几年来，银行对外国学生的 开户条件似有逐渐提高的趋势，伦敦地区开户尤其难，除需护照、入学证明外，银行有时 亦要求在学证明、本国银行户头和住址证明，以及财产证明。 除此之外，部分银行的新规 定也是同学要注意的，以HSBC而言，如同学若是无法证明自己的修读课程超过两年或是两 年以上，或是同学已在其他银行开户者，通常无法在该行开户；Barclays于2001年也发函 告知顾客，其存款若低于两千英镑，银行将每月酌予扣取一定数目的户头管理费。
一般而言，目前学生开户后，一至二周内可领取到一种「三合一」卡，即提款卡(cash
card)、转帐卡(debit
card) 和支票保证卡，外加支票簿(cheque book)及存款簿(pay-in book)，以及到提款机领钱所必须的个人密码(PIN)。近来有同学首次开户后提款卡及私人密 码资料中途被他人截收，而遭存款被盗领之不幸事件，同学最好选择亲自去银行领取提款 卡。英国的存款簿只供存钱用，不似国内的存折会列下所有存提款明细的记录。若欲查询 户头内之金额，可持提款卡至提款机查询，银行也会定期定期寄来前一月份之存提款记录( Bank Statement)。
英国转帐的机构主要有两家：Switch
和 Delta。基本上Switch的使用店家较多。但一般购物 不至于有太大差异。转帐卡如同信用卡一般刷卡支付，直接由帐 户中刷卡转帐，好处是不像现金提款卡有每日提款的上限，只要帐户中有存款或是在透支 额度内皆可。 其他注意事项 信用卡(credit
card) 申请 这几年申请信用卡虽容易些，但仍可能被拒绝。学费未缴清、存 款不足(二千英镑以下)、在英期限短、无财务资料或是住址令人怀疑都可能是原因。提醒同 学，若使用信用卡的信用状况不佳，会影响银行以后发卡给相同国籍学生的意愿，因此同 学务请洁身自爱，以造福后来的学子。在英国进修时间较短的同学(包括一年的硕士课程与 短期语言进修课程)，银行通常不太愿意提供信用卡。进修时间较长的同学，可考虑申请当 地信用卡。 申请信用卡时，可告知已在中国申请使用的信用卡，说明信用良好，以说服银 行尽早同意申请。填信用额度(credit
limit)时，可将在国内工作所得全部填入(含年终奖金或 红利)，以利争取较高额度。 英国商家接受Visa多于Master Card，故最好以申请Visa为优 先。若无法一次付清信用卡帐单时，则须考虑各银行申请年利率(Annual
Percentage Rate, APR)。部分银行为争取客户，提供第一年免年费(annual
fee free)或是学生免年费，可优 先考虑。各银行信用卡之年费和年利率(Annual
Percentage Rate, APR)不一，可询问多家 参考。 缴税 开户时记得同时申请免付税，由于我们并非英国国民，在存款发放利息时可免付税。 英国税务年度是到三月底为一年度。银行会由学生帐户的存款利息中预扣利息所得税。而 根据现行英国税法规定，外国学生停留英国不超过四年不必缴交利息所得税(免税额1,965 英镑)。不过银行通常不会主动告知这一点，所以开户时务请记得索取一份国税局(Inland
Revenue)的R105表(Not Ordinarily Resident Declaration)申请免扣利息所得。 但是并非每一家银行都提供外籍人士免税申报，因国税局 授权各银行自行斟酌办理，国税局偶而抽查。某些银行为免查证麻烦，干脆不办理(例如Ba rclays),而要求存款人日后自行向国税局办理退税(Tax
Voucher/ Certificate)。 透支(Overdraft)
大部分的英国银行不提供透支额度，特别是开户后两三个月内。 但部分银 行如NatWest、HSBC和Barclays顺利开户后，会有一定免利息的英镑透支额度(一般在一千 至两千英镑左右)，但不想要此一优惠的必须在申请表上特别注明，以免不知情下溢领。其 他银行则另需填表申请，核准与否因分行经理 而易。不过银行随时有权要求付清透支的金 额。要特别注意的是如果顾客在不知情之下溢领(银行未得顾客同意即给予顾客透支额度)， 可据理向银行力争，要求免付利息。 支票 英国的票据交换至少需四个工作天，例如周一开出的支票周四扣款，周一存入的支票周五 可提领。开票时应记得签名，否则持票人在轧票时会被银行罚款(10英镑左右)。远期支票( Post-dated)并不能阻止持票人要求取款。持票人若是在约定的提示日之前提前要求给付， 开票人没有拒付的权利。 跳票(bounced /
unpaid cheque)在英国并不列入信用征信公司的资料，除非那是付每月贷 款或是行动电话的款项，不过银行都会留有纪录，对于日后申请透支可能会有影响。如果 周转不灵而有跳票之虞，必须立刻通知银行止付特定的支票(有财务纠纷的交易亦可以比照 办理)。票据交换所(Clearing House)每笔止付的手续费是7.5英镑，若是听任其跳票，一般 帐户收取25英镑处理费，Barclays和 Halifax 的学生帐户则收5英镑手续费(以天计，不以件计)。除此之外，任何支票票面日期的 六个月内都具给付效力，超过六个月的支票，银行可以不履行给付义务。 汇款 若家人由中国电汇至英国户头，通常随汇随到。中国银行为留学人员有专门的服务，汇款 同时需要汇方提供收款方的一些资料，包括：在学证明或入学通知书，学费清单或上一年 的学费收据，护照及签证复印件。需要强调的是，汇款的金额有一定的限制，详情请参阅 中国银行网站或直接到中国银行咨询。
一般而言，由国内汇款来英，如果该银行和你在英国帐户的银行没有直接业务往来，而透 过其他在英国有办事处的银行，这些银行会扣6-15英镑手续费后，再转到英国银行的帐户 。所以最好能先行询问国内的银行是否和英国的银行有业务往来。
旅行支票 (traveller's cheque) 英国发行最广的旅行支票是由汤玛士.库克(Thomas Cook)公司发行的 。但和美国不同的是，英国一般商店、超市并不接受旅支。同学若想兑换汤玛士?库克的旅 支，最好至该公司的外币兑换所(Bureau
of Change)兑换，可免收手续费。 结束户头 (close
account) 同学学成归国，想要把户头关掉时，别忘了及早向银行提出申请 ，手续约一周可完成。 在英国的健康和安全
： 热 健康 在英国学习的额外好处之一，就是既能得到高质量的保健服务，又能负担得起。 如果你在英国的课程是六个月或以上，你就可以享受国家健康中心(NHS)免费看病的服务。 如果你在苏格兰学习全日制课程，那么不管你学习的课程是长是短，都能享受这一福利。 该项福利同样适用于你的配偶和16岁以下的孩子。 你需要在一名全科医生(GP)处登记。首次见全科医生前需要预约。病人接受治疗后，凭全 科医生的处方在当地药店购买药品。如果全科医生无法处理病情，病人会被转到医院里的 专科医生处。 所谓免费是指看病和处方免费，但按处方购买药物还要按照国家规定的价格自己付钱。不 论药品的实际价值，药店仅对每张处方收取6.30英镑。但是，如果你住进医院，就全部免 费了。 与医生注册 要享受这些医疗服务，你要办理医疗注册。建议你一旦到达学校并有固定地址后立即注册 ，不要等到生病了才想起来。注册可以在学校的医疗中心办理，学校会推荐一位医生给你 。注册后你就拥有一张医疗卡，看病时不要忘记带上这张卡。 看牙齿和眼睛往往不是免费的。你可以到国家健康中心注册牙医，最好是选择加入国家健 康中心的医生，这样花费要比个人掏腰包便宜多了。 对残疾人的服务和设施 如果你有任何残疾，请与你的学校联系，询问他们能为你提供什么设施。有些机构可以考 虑你的残疾情况，作出特殊安排。例如，如果你写字不便，他们会允许你有额外的考试时 间。 保持健康 在英国保持健康的最好方法与你在本国保持健康的最好方法完全一样，吃健康食品，经常 锻炼，并确保充足的睡眠。 如果你不能享受NHS的优惠保健，那么你应该在出国之前，或一到英国后尽快办理医疗保 险 建议出国前检查一下牙齿和眼睛。在学习期间要注意用眼卫生。 要了解NHS的服务及其他信息， 请访问：http://www.nhsdirect.nhs.uk
建议出国前检查一下牙齿和眼睛。在学习期间要注意用眼卫生。
安全 与其他欧洲国家相比，英国是很安全的。当地的生活便利，居民热情友好。但是这并不排 除在一些特定区域有偶发事件。以下是你在安全方面应注意的事项： 当你穿越马路时，要特别小心，因为英国的机动车都是靠左行驶的。要切记，穿越主要路 口，需留意地面上“注意左边”和“注意右边”的提示。有些主要路口有人行横道指示灯控制按 钮，过马路时按此装置可出现提示，示意过往车辆停车等候。 不要携带大量现金，最大限度地利用银行卡、支票等支付工具。 将你的护照、银行卡和支票号码进行备份，以便在遗失后可以及时、准确地挂失、报案。
避免与酗酒的人发生争执。 如果晚上你不得不单独出行，尽量避免无人的街道。 将你的行踪告诉房东、朋友或亲戚。 远离毒品。 保管好自己的私人物品，如遇盗抢，应及时报警，并可寻求学校国际办公室的帮助。在本 章节最后有一些紧急联系方式，供你参考。
英国有许多商业保险公司提供各种保险服务，其中，Endsleigh提供多种针对学生的保险品 种，包括学生财产险等等。请访问他们的网站,寻找适合自己的保险：www.endsleigh.co.uk 总部设在上海的中保康联保险公司最近推出了留学生外汇保险，针对海外留学人员提供意 外保险。 在英住宿
： 热 在英住宿--理想居住环境 负笈异乡求学，能拥有一个舒适的窝，非常重要。当你在学校或图书馆埋首苦读整天之后 ，最需要的就是一个温馨、私密的空间来放松及休憩。英国的住宿会依宿舍型式、不同地 区及个人需求，而有不同的收费。以下所提供之住宿资讯，是为普遍性情况，因篇幅有限 ，个案或特殊状况无法多做说明。
学校宿舍 英国各大学宿舍通常可分为Halls,
Flats, and Houses等几类。这些住宿单位一般都不会集 中在同一个区域，而是散落在大学的各个系所或学院附近。小型的宿舍区通常不会有公共 设施；中型的宿舍区则会包含洗衣房、脚踏车停车场、会客室等空间；大型的宿舍区会再 增加餐厅、商店、social
centre、sports centre等场所。 上述几类的宿舍，以伙食而言，可分为包伙
(full-board) 及自炊(self-catering) 两种。包伙 的宿舍通常提供早、晚餐，也有包含三餐的，但假日一般不提供晚餐。由于英国食物的styl e和中国食物差别极大，绝大多数的中国留学生都不会选择包伙。自炊的宿舍通常会提供炉 具 (含烤箱)、冰箱、微波炉、茶壶、餐桌椅等设备，至于锅碗瓢盆及汤匙筷子则需自备。 以人数而言，可分为单人套房、二人雅房、三人
(含) 以上雅房等几类。套房与雅房之分别 在于套房拥有个人卫浴设备，雅房则需和他人共用卫浴设备。不论是套房或雅房均是一人 一个房间。房间的基本配备为单人床、书桌、固定台灯、书架等，至于寝具、盥洗用具、 拖鞋则需自备。比较新的宿舍会有网路及电视天线插座
(一般而言，宿舍无法自装室外天线 ，所以收讯不佳，但插上此插座后，收讯即非常清楚)。 英国的大学宿舍在学期和圣诞节、复活节、暑假等三个假期之间，会有不同的规定。有的 大学宿舍可以申请住一整年，期间不用迁移；有的大学宿舍在三个假期中，会要求学生迁 移至另一个宿舍，其空出之宿舍是要对外营业
(因为在三个假期中，大部份的英国籍学生都 会回自己家，故会空出许多房间)
。当然，你也可以申请假期中不住宿舍而出去旅游或返国 省亲。因此，在申请宿舍时，宜对宿舍的规定多加瞭解。 由于来英留学的中国学生大都是 一年的硕士课程居多，因此流动性很大，每年都会留下极为可观的二手货，诸如电视、CD 音响、电锅、台灯、文具、厨房用具、寝室用具、脚踏车…等等，如果新生不介意使用二 手货，将可省下一笔可观的家当购置费。一般而言，初抵英国的新生其settle
down 的几个 主要事项为接机、住宿、银行开户、熟悉周遭环境、向家庭医生
(GP) 登记等。这些事项都 可请求当地中国留学生会帮忙。由于同学会都是义务帮忙，因此在寻求同学会协助时，请 心存感激，不要抱持理所当然的态度。曾经发生这样的案例，留学代办中心预先向新生收 取接机费用，并告知新生会有专人接机，然而代办中心却是联络当地的同学会义务帮忙， 没有付任何费用给同学会，而新生误以为接机者是代办中心所聘的人员，造成接机的不愉 快。如果当地没有同学会，则可请求学校的国际学生办公室
(有的学校叫做International Office，有的称为Foreign
Student Office等)，提供该校中国留学生的资料，以寻求协助。 在申请学校宿舍时应注意下列事项： (1)宿舍是否距离自己的系所很近？ (2)宿舍的型式、配备、租金是否满意？ (3)可否租一整年？假期是否需要搬迁？ (4)特别需求，如吸不吸烟？是否残障？喜欢安静或热闹？ (5)有携眷的新生，各校皆提供家庭式宿舍，在申请时必须说明清楚。通常家庭式宿舍分为 有小孩和无小孩两种。由于学校的家庭式宿舍极少，非常抢手，需很早申请。家庭式宿舍 有独立的卫浴及厨房，并有双人床，其他配备和单人套房差不多。 一般而言，英国各大学所发出的入学许可有两种，一种是conditional，另一种是unconditio nal。接到conditional
offer的同学，有些被要求在开学前必须先上 语言课程。在上语言课 程至开学这段期间，可以充裕瞭解各个宿舍的优缺点，如果对现住的宿舍不满意，在开学 前尽早再提出申请，通常可以换到较满意的宿舍。如果不想住宿舍，也有较充裕的时间来 找民房租住。至于拿到unconditional
offer 的同学，因不必上语言课程，大都在开学前几天 才抵达英国 (如果你想提前到英国熟悉环境，除非事先能找到短期住宿的房子，因为各大学 宿舍是在开学前几天才能住进的)
，因此，无法事先瞭解宿舍理想与否，只好在当初申请宿 舍时多费心思。通常学校会将住宿申请表和入学许可一起寄出，当你愈早拿到入学 许可， 愈能申请到理想的宿舍。至于如何瞭解宿舍的理想与否，则须衡量本身的需求，加上向当 地同学会或毕业学长求证才能决定。当你申请到宿舍并住进之后，如果发觉不满意想要换 宿舍 (通常成功机率很低，因为已届开学，你想要换的宿舍可能不会有人想搬出)
，或想到 外面租屋时，唯一的补救措施，就是在刚住进去的一周内就决定，而且在这一周内都不能 签约 (第一次申请宿舍会签一次约，并会要求你付50至150英镑的押金，这个约是确定你保 有一个住宿位置。等你住进之后，宿舍经理会马上要求你再签一次约，这个约则是保证你 在所申请的住宿期间不会搬出，如果中途想搬出就得赔偿学校费用，金额视各校宿舍之规 定而异，请同学务必充分了解合约之相关规定)
。因此，当宿舍经理会要求你再签一次约时 ，你最好坚持一星期之后再签，但有的学校可能只给两三天的期限。一旦你决定搬出宿舍 ，第一次签约的押金就会被没收。 学校宿舍若与民房相比，各有各的优缺点，主要的抉择 还是在于个人的需求。大抵而言，学校宿舍的优点如下：(1)方便省事，不必花时间找房子 ，亦不用为了缴帐单伤脑筋。(2)有专人管理及打扫 (只限于公共空间，自己寝室还是要自 己整理)。(3)安全性较高，较不会遭小偷(这点不是绝对，要看入住的各国留学生的安全意 识而定)。至于民房的优点则有：(1)可选择房客，志同道合的朋友住在一起，其乐无穷。(2 )空间较大，一般民房的房间都比宿舍房间大。(3)较安静有隐密性。至于租金方面，如果是 四人以上共租一个house
(一人一个房间，共用卫浴及厨房，有客厅)，其租金 (包括水、电 、瓦斯费) 绝对比学校宿舍便宜。如果是两人住的flat，其租金可能和学校差不多。如果是 一人的flat或三人以下共租一个house，其租金可能比学校宿舍贵。 外面租屋 外面租屋通常需要耐心及一点运气，才能找到既满意又便宜的房子。校外租屋的相关资讯 ，一般可从学校宿舍的办公室、房屋仲介公司
(Letting Agencies and Estate Agents)、学 生活动中心
(Student Union)的布告栏、杂货店及post
office的门口或外墙、房屋出租的广 告牌 (通常房屋前立有此牌，即表示此屋要出租)、学长或同学的告知等方面来获得。欲寻 得一间理想的房子租住，以下建议或可供大 家参考。 1. 先花一、两天时间，从上述的租屋资讯中，努力寻找房屋出租资料。然后和友人或同学 ，根据租屋的地点、交通状况、租金、提供设备等条件先做初步筛选，勾选较为中意的房 子，再开始拨电话约房东或Agents看房子。 2. 购买一份当地的A-Z地图，事先规划看房子的路线以节省时间。看房时为安全起见，最好 结伴而行，而且在看屋过程中，同伴亦可提供宝贵意见。
3. 出发前，先行瞭解学长或他人租屋情况，问清楚租金，做为自己租屋之参考。其次，货 比三家不吃亏，纵使你已找到满意的住屋，也不要急着马上签约，最好等你看完所有房子 再做决定。一般而言，Agents代理的房屋，其租金是固定的，至于非Agents代理的房屋， 其租金则有讨价还价的空间。因此，当你遇到满意的房子，千万不要露出急欲租下之神色 ，最好挑一、两个你不满意之处来杀价，如果杀价不成，至少也要求房东增添些设备。
4. 万一一时找不到理想的住屋，可将自己希望的租屋条件及预算列给仲介公司，仲介公司 一般效率都不错，很快会替你约好看房屋时间。
签约注意事项 1. 如果是透过仲介公司找到房子，有些须付仲介公司服务费(约一星期租金)。 2. 房租是否包含水费、电费、瓦斯费？在合约中要叙明清楚。
3. 注意合约中是否存有不合理条款？和房东的所有口头约定，均须在合约中叙明清楚，才 能保障自我权利。 4. 房屋内部的设备损害时，由谁维护？在合约中必须清楚载明。
5. 房屋税 (Council
Tax)由谁付？若由房东缴，就不须烦恼课程型态及长短，但 必须于租约 中载明。一旦约定由房客缴交，只要你是全时生且课程超过半年以上，即可向学校注册组 索取学生免缴房屋税证明
(Council Tax-Student Certificate) 。等到市政府
(City Council) 寄来你的房屋税单时，将此免税证明连同税单一并寄回市政府，即可免缴房屋税。由于各 市政府对于减免适用范围的解释不尽相同，眷属是否能获得减免，最好向各个
City Council 的Finance
Office查询清楚。 6. 应付多少押金
(deposits)？押金通常为一个月租金，而英国法律规定不得超过两个月租 金。记得向房东索取押金收据，以做为退费的凭藉。退租时，如果房子太脏或破坏严重， 会被扣押金，如无大问题，一般都能全额退还。
7. 租约的长短可以和房东商量
(Aagents代理的房屋一般为半年)，租约通常最短为半年， 最长较无限制。若租约到期你想搬迁，通常在一个月之前就要通知房东(one
month notice) 。如果租约到期你要续住，有的房东会要求再重新签约，如果没有重新签约，则你随时可 以搬离，但仍须在一个月(或租约规定期限) 之前通知房东。 英语国家概况笔记
热 第一章 Land and People 英国的国土与人民 I. Different Names for Britain and its Parts 英国的不同名称及其各组成部分
1.Geographical names: the British Isles, Great Britain and
England. 地理名称：不列颠群岛，大不列颠和英格兰。 2.Official name: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland. 官方正式名称：大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国。 3.The British Isles are made up of two large islands-Great
Britain (the larger one) and Ireland, and hundreds of small ones. 不列颠群岛由两个大岛—大不列颠岛（较大的一个）和爱尔兰岛，及成千上万个小岛组成 。 4.Three political divisions on the island of Great Britain:
England, Scotland and Wales. 大不列颠岛上有三个政治区：英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士。 (1) England is in the southern part of Great Britain. It is
the largest, most populous section. 英格兰位于大不列颠岛南部，是最大，人口最稠密的地区。 (2) Scotland is in the north of Great Britain. It has three
natural zones (the Highlands in the north; the Central lowlands; the south Uplands) Capital:
Edinburgh 苏格兰位于大不列颠的北部。它有三大自然区：北部高地，中部低地及南部山陵。首府： 爱丁堡。 (3) Wales is in the west of Great Britain. Capital: Cardiff 威尔士位于大不列颠的西部。首府：加的夫 (4) Northern Ireland is the fourth region of the UK.
Capital: Belfast. 北爱尔兰是英国第四个区域。首府：贝尔法斯特。 5.The Commonwealth (of nations) is a free association of
independent countries that were once colonies of Britain. It was founded in 1931, and
has 50 member countries until 1991. 英联邦是曾为英国殖民地的、但现已独立国家所构成的自由联合体。它成立于1931年，至 1990年止已有50个成员国。 II. Geographical Features 英国的地理特征
1.Geographical position of Britain: 英国的地理位置： Britain is an island country surrounded by the sea. It lies
in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north coast of Europe. It is separated from the rest of
Europe by the English Channel in the south and the North Sea in the east. 英国是一个岛国。它位于大西洋北部，与欧洲大陆的北海岸隔海相望。南面的英吉利海峡 和东面的北海将它与欧洲其它部分隔开。
2.The north and west of Britain are mainly highlands; and
the east and southeast are mostly lowlands. 英国的西部和北部主要是高地，东部和东南部主要是低地。
III. Rivers and Lakes 河流与湖泊
Ben Nevis is the highest mountain in Britain (1,343m). 本尼维斯山为英国最高峰，海拔1,343米。 Severn River is the longest river in Britain (338km). 塞文河是英国最长的河流。全长338公里。 Thames River is the second longest and most important river
in Britain. (336km). 泰晤士河是英国第二大河，也是英国最重要的河。全长336公里。 Lough Neagh is the largest lake in Britain which is located
in Northern Ireland. (396 square kilometres). 讷湖（内伊湖）是英国最大的湖，位于北爱尔兰。面积为396平方公里。 River Clyde is the most important river in Scotland. 克莱德河是苏格兰最重要的河流。 Snowdonia is the highest mountain in Wales.（1,085m） 斯诺多尼亚是威尔士的最高点，海拔1,085米。 IV. Climate 气候
1. Britain's favorable climate 英国有利的气候条件： Britain has a maritime climate-winters are not too cold and
summers are not too hot. It has a steady reliable rainfall throughout the whole year.
The temperature varies within a small range. 英国属于海洋性气候：冬季不过于寒冷，夏季不过于炎热。全年有稳定可靠的降雨量，气 温变化幅度小。 2.The factors influence the climate in Britain: 影响英国气候的因素： 1）The
surrounding waters tend to balance the seasonal differences by heating up the land in winter and cooling it off in summer; 环绕四周的海水。冬天，海水可使岛内气温升高，夏天则使气温降低，从而起到平衡季节 温差的作用； 2)The prevailing south-west winds or the Westerlies blow
over the country all the year round bringing warm and wet air in winter and keeping the
temperatures moderate; 一年四季盛行的西南风和西风在冬季从大西洋带来温暖、潮湿的空气，使气温适宜； 3）The North
Atlantic Drift passes the western coast of the British Isles and warms them. 北大西洋暖流经不列颠群岛西海岸，使气候变暖。
3.Rainfall 降雨量：
Britain has a steady reliable rainfall throughout the whole
year. The average annual rainfall in Britain is over 1,000mm. There is a water
surplus in the north and west, and a water deficit in the south and east. 英国全年降雨量稳定，平均降雨量超过1000毫米。 英国北部、西部雨量过多，但是南部、 东部有所缺乏。 V. The People 人口
1.population distribution 人口分布：
Britain has a population of about 57 millions and it is very
unevenly distributed. 90% of the population is urban and only 10% is rural. The
population of Britain is made up mainly of the English (81.5%), the Scottish (9.6%), the
Welsh (1.9%), the Irish (2.4%), the Northern Irish (1.8%) and other peoples (2.8%). 英国人口约570万，分布极不均匀，90%是城市人口，只有10%是农村人口。英国人口组成 为：英格兰人（81.5%），苏格兰人（9.6%），威尔士人（1.9%），爱尔兰人、北爱尔兰 人和其他民族居民。 2.The difference between the ancestors of the English and
Scots, Welsh and Irish: 英伦三岛民族的祖先： The ancestors of the English are Anglo-Saxons, the Scots,
Welsh and Irish are Celts. 英格兰人祖先属于盎格鲁—萨克逊人，而苏格兰、威尔士和爱尔兰人属于凯尔特人。
3.The difference in character个性差别： The Welsh are emotional and cheerful people. They are music
lovers and are proud of their past. 威尔士人感情丰富，情绪高涨，热爱音乐，为过去感到自豪。 The Scots are said to be a serious, cautious and thrifty
people, and they are also hospitable, generous and friendly. 苏格兰人通常被认为严肃、谨慎而且节俭，但是他们同样也热情、大方且友好。 The Irish are charm and vivacity. 爱尔兰人充满魅力，生性活泼。 4.The difference in speech between southern England and
northern England: 英格兰南方人和北方人语言上的差别： Southerners speak the type of English close to BBC English;
In northern England, regional speech is usually "broader" than that of
southern England. 南方人讲的英语接近BBC，北英格兰人的发音通常要比南英格兰人宽。 5.The Welsh keep their language and culture in this way: 威尔士人以这样的方式使他们 的语言及文化保持活力。 Throughout the year they have festivals of song and dance
and poetry called Eisteddfodau. The great event of the year is the National
Eisteddfod. On these occasions competitions are held in Welsh poetry, music,
singing and art. 一年中他们有称之为“艺术年会”的唱歌、跳舞、诗歌节。一年中最重要的节日是全国诗歌音 乐比赛会。在那里会举行威尔士诗歌、音乐、唱歌和艺术比赛。
6.The main problem in Northern Ireland: 北爱尔兰存在的主要问题： The fight between the Protestants who are the dominant
group, and the Roman Catholics, who are seeking more social, political and
economic opportunities. 作为统治者的新教徒和要求更多社会、政治及经济权利的罗马天主教徒之间的斗争。
7.Immigrants: 移民： About three million have come to Britain to live and find
work since World War II. 自从二战以来约有三百万人来英国生活、工作。 第二章 The Origins of a Nation (5000BC-1066) 英国的起源（公元前5000年—1066年） I.Early Settlers （5000BC-55BC） 早期的居民（公元前5000年—公元前55年） 1．The first
known settlers of Britain were the Iberians. 人们所知的英国最早居民是伊比利来人。 2． At about
2000 BC the Beaker Folk arrived from the areas now know as Holland and Rhineland. 约公元前2000年，从现在的荷兰和莱茵兰地区来了宽口陶器人。 3． The Celts
began to arrive Britain about 700 BC. 约公元前700年，克尔特人来到不列颠岛。 4． The Celts
came to Britain in three main waves. 克尔特人来到不列颠有三次高潮。 The first wave were the Gaels-came about 600 BC. 第一次高潮是约公元前600年盖尔人的来临。 The second wave were the Brythons-came about 400 BC. 第二次高潮是约公元前400年布立吞（不列颠）人的抵达。 The third wave were the Belgae-came about 150 BC. 第三次是约公元前150年比利其人的到达。 II. Roman Britain (55BC-410AD) 罗马人统治时期的英国（公元前55年—410年） 1.British recorded history begins with the Roman invasion.
In 55BC and 54BC, Julius Caesar, a Roman general, invaded Britain twice. In AD 43,
the Emperor Claudius invaded Britain successfully. For nearly 400 years, Britain
was under the Roman occupation, though it was never a total occupation. 有记录的英国历史开始于罗马人的入侵。公元前55年和54年，罗马将军朱略斯•凯 撒两次入侵英国，均未成功。直到公元43年，克劳锹才成功占领不列颠。将近四百年里， 英国人处于罗马人的占领下，但这并非是完全的占领。
2. Roman’s influence on Britain. The Roman built many towns, road, baths, temples and
buildings. They make good use of Britain’s natural resources. They also brought the new
religion, Christianity, to Britain. 罗马人修建了许多城镇网，道路，澡堂，庙宇和其他建筑物。他们还很好地利用了英国的 自然资源。罗马人还把基督教这门新宗教带到不列颠。
3.Reasons for limited Roman influence on Britain. 罗马对不列颠的影响有限的原因。 First, the Romans always treated the Britons as a subject
people of slave class. Second, never during the 4 centuries did the Romans and Britons
intermarry. Third, the Romans had no impact on the language or culture of ordinary
Britons. 首先，罗马人把不列颠人当作奴隶阶段的属民来对待。其次，在四世纪对罗马人和不列颠 人通婚。最后，罗马人也未影响普通不列颠人的语言和文化。
Summary: This is the second part of Chapter 2 (The Origins
of a Nation). It introduced some important events and important people in England from
446 to 1066. These most important events are The Anglos-Saxons’ invasion; The Viking
and Danish Invasions and The Norman Conquest. (简要：这是第二章“国家的起源”的第二部分。在这一部分里，主要是介绍了英国从公元446 年到1066年所发生的重要事件及人物。这些重要事件分别是盎格鲁—撒克逊人的入侵，北 欧海盗和丹麦人的入侵及诺曼征服)。 III. The Anglo-Saxons (446-871) 盎格鲁—撒克逊人（公元446—871年） 1． Basis of
Modern English race: the Anglo-Saxons. 盎格鲁—萨克逊时代（奠定了英国的基础） In the mid-5th century a new wave of invaders, Jutes,
Saxons, and Angles came to Britain. They were three Teutonic tribes. The Jutes, who fished and farmed in Jutland, came to Britain
first. A Jutish chief became the King of Kent in 449. Then the Saxons, users of the
short-sword from northern Germany, established their kingdom in Essex, Sussex and
Wessex from the end of the 5th century to the beginning of the 6th century. In the
second half of the 6th century. In the second half of the 6th century, the Angles, who also
came from northern Germany and were to give their name to the English people, settled
in East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria. These seven principal kingdoms of Kent, Essex,
Sussex, Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria have been given the name of
Heptarchy. 五世纪中叶，朱特人、撒克逊人和盎格鲁人不断入侵不列颠。这是三支日耳曼（条顿）部 落。 居住在朱特兰岛（现丹麦南部）上从事打渔农耕的朱特人先抵不列颠。后来从德国北部来 的使用短剑的撒克逊人在埃撒克斯、苏塞克斯和威塞克斯建立了王国，统治期从五世纪末 至六世纪初。六世纪后半叶，同样来自德国北部的盎格鲁人，在东盎格利亚、麦西亚以及 诺森伯利来定居，同时也他们也把名字给了英国人。这七个主要王国（肯特、埃塞克斯、 苏塞克斯、威塞克斯、东盎格利亚、麦西亚和诺森伯利亚），合称为七王国。
2．The early
Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity. 最早的盎格鲁—撒克逊人改信基督教。 The Anglo-Saxons brought their own Teutonic religion to
Britain. Christianity soon disappeared, except among the Celts of Cornwall, Wales,
Scotland and Ireland. In 597, Pope Gregory I sent St. Augustine, the Prior of St. Andrew’s
Monastery in Rome, to England to convert the heathen English to Christianity. In
579 St. Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. He was remarkably successful
in converting the king and the nobility, but the conversion of the common people was
largely due to the missionary activities of the monks in the north. 盎格鲁—撒克逊人把日耳曼宗教带到了英国。除了康瓦尔、威尔士、苏格兰和爱尔兰中的 克尔特人还信奉基督教外，基督教很快就消失了。公元597，教皇格里高一世把罗马圣安德 鲁修道院的副院长圣奥古斯丁派遣到英格兰，其使命是使异教徒的英国人皈依基督教。公 元579年圣奥古丁成为坎特伯雷大主教。在使国王和贵族皈依基督教方面，奥古斯丁特别成 功。但是普通人的皈依很大程度上归功于北部修士们的传教活动。
3．The Early
Anglo-Saxons make the contributions to the English state. 早期盎格鲁—撒克逊人为英国做出的贡献。 The Anglo-Saxons laid the foundations of the English state.
Firstly, they divided the country into shires, with shire courts and shire reeves, or
sheriffs, responsible for administering law. Secondly, they devised the narrow-strip, three-field
farming system which continued to the 18th century. Thirdly, they also
established the manorial system. Finally, they created the Witan（council or meeting of the wisemen） to advise the king, the basis of the Privy Council which still exists today. 盎格鲁—撒克逊人为英国国家的形成打下了基础。首先，他们把国家划分为郡，郡法庭和 郡法官、或行政司法长官负责执法。其次，他们设计的窄条三圃田农耕制延用至18世纪。 此外，他们还建立了领地制。最后，他们还创立了议会(贤人会议)，向国王提供建议，这就 成为了今天仍存在的枢密院的基础。
IV．Viking and
Danish invasions 北欧海盗和丹麦人的入侵 1．The invaders
were the Norwegians and the Danes. They attacked various parts of England from the end of the 8th century. They became a
serious problem in the 9th century, especially between 835 and 878. They even managed
to capture York, an important center of Christianity in 867. By the middle of
9th century, the Viking and the Danes were posing a threat to the Saxon kingdom of Wessex. 入侵者是挪威人和丹麦人，从8世纪末开始，他们不断袭击英格兰的各个地方。9世纪，尤 其是公元835-878年间已成为严重问题。他们甚至占领了约克郡，公元867年时的基督教中 心。到9世纪中叶，北欧海盗和丹麦人威胁到撒克逊人的威撒克斯王国的安全。
2．King Alfred
(849-899) and his contributions 艾尔弗雷德国王（849-899）和他所做出的贡献 Alfred was a king of Wessex. He defeated the Danes and
reached a friendly agreement with them in 879. The Danes gained control of the north and
east, while he ruled the rest. He also converted some leading Danes into Christians. He founded a strong fleet and is known as “ the father of
the British navy”. He reorganized the Saxon army, making it more efficient. He
translated a Latin book into English. He also established schools and formulated a legal
system. All this earns him the title “Alfred the Great.” 阿尔弗雷德是威塞克斯的国王。他打败了丹麦人，并于公元879年与他们达成了友好协议。 协议规定丹麦人控制英格兰北部和西部（丹麦法区），而他统治其他地区。他还劝服一些 丹麦首领成为基督教徒。 他因为建立了强大舰队，而以“英国海军之父”闻名于世。他改组了“弗立德”（撒克逊军队） ，使之更为高效。他将一本拉丁语的书翻译成英语。同时他还建立了学校，并且阐明了法 律制度。所有这一切使他当之无愧于“阿尔弗雷德大王。”的称号。
V．The Norman
Conquest (1066) 诺曼征服（公元1066年） 1．Reasons for
William’s invasion of England after
Edward’s death. 威廉在爱德华死后入侵英国的原因。 It was said that king Edward had promised the English throne
to William, but the Witan chose Harold as king. So William led his army to invade
England. In October 1066, during the important battle of Hastings, William defeated
Harold and killed him. One Christmas Day, William was crowned king of England, thus
beginning the Norman Conquest of England. 据说，爱德华国王曾答应把英格兰王位传给诺曼底公爵威廉，但是贤人会议挑选了哈罗德 为国王。公元1066年10月，在哈斯丁斯附近的激烈交锋中，威廉打败了哈罗德军队，同时 哈罗德也在此战争中战死。 2．The Norman
Conquest and its consequences 诺曼征服及其产生的影响。 The Norman Conquest of 1066 is perhaps the best-known event
in English history. William the Conqueror confiscated almost all the land and
gave it to his Norman followers. He replaced the weak Saxon rule with a strong
Norman government. He replaced the weak Saxon rule with a strong Norman
government. So the feudal system was completely established in England. Relations with the
Continent were opened, and the civilization and commerce were extended. Norman-French
culture, language, manners and architecture were introduced. The Church was
brought into closer connection with Rome, and the church courts were separated
from the civil courts. 1066年的诺曼征服也许是英国历史上的最著名事件。征服者威廉几乎没收了所有土地，将 其分发给他的诺曼追随者。他用强有力的诺曼政府代替了软弱的萨克逊政府。于是，封建 制度在英国完全建立。开放了与欧洲大陆的关系，文明和商业得到发展，引进了诺曼—法 国文化、语言、举止和建筑。教会与罗马的联系更为密切，教会法庭与世俗法庭分离。
3．The English
is a mixture of nationalities of different origins. The ancestors of many English people were the ancient Angles and Saxons. Some
English people are of the Norman-French origin. 英国是一个集不同民族于一体的国家。许多英国人的祖先是古盎格鲁和撒克逊人。而还有 一些英国人的是诺曼血统。 This is one of the most difficult parts. In this part, I
will introduce some Kings in English history and their reformations. Though we have to remember a
lot of things in this part, we also learn more about English history. Chapter 3 第三章 The Shaping of the Nation (1066-1381) 英国的形成（公元1066-1381） I. Norman Rule (1066-1381) 诺曼统治（公元1066-1381） 1. William's Rule （1066-1087） 威廉一世的统治（公元1066-1087） England's feudalism under the rule of William the Conqueror 在威廉统治下的英国封建制度 ①Under
William, the feudal system in England was completely established. ②According to this system, the King owned all the land personally. ③William gave his barons large estates in England in return for a promise of military
service and a proportion of the land's produce. ④These
estates were scattered far and wide over the country, so that those who held them could not easily combine to rebel the
king. ⑤The barons, who had become William's tenants-in-chief, parceled out land to the
lesser nobles, knights and freemen, also in return for goods and services. ⑥At the bottom of the feudal
scale were the villeins or serfs. ⑦One
peculiar feature of the feudal system of England was that all landowners must take the oath of allegiance，not only to their immediate lord, but also to the king. ①在威廉统治下，英国的封建制度得到完全确立。②根据此制度，国王拥有全国所有土地 。③威廉把英国的大片土地分给贵族，条件是换取对方服役和收租。④这些地产分散于各 处，这样土地拥有者就不易联合起来反叛国王。⑤已成为国王土地承租人的贵族又把土地 分配给小贵族、骑士和自由民，同样换取货物和服役。⑥在封建等级底层的是农奴。⑦英 国封建制独有的特色就是，无论是土地承租人还是二佃户，都必须要宣誓效忠于直接领主 ，而且要效忠于国王。 2. King Henry II and his reforms 亨利二世国王和他的改革 The ways King Henry II consolidate the monarchy. 亨利二世巩固君主制的途径。 Henry II took some measures to consolidate the monarchy. He
forced the Flemish mercenaries to leave England; recalled grants of Royal lands
made by his previous king Stephen; demolished many castles built in Stephen’s time;
strengthened and widened the powers of his sheriffs and relied for armed support upon
a militia composed of English freemen. 亨利二世采取了一些措施巩固君主制。他迫使弗兰德斯雇佣军离开英国，收回史蒂芬森赠 出皇室土地；拆除几十座史蒂芬森时造德城堡，加强并扩大了他的行政长官们的权力，依 靠由英国自由民组成的民兵获取军事支持。
The ways Henry II reform the courts and the law. 亨利二世对法院及法律进行改革的方式。 King Henry II greatly strengthened the Court and extended
its judicial work. He divided the whole country into six circuits and appointed justices
to each. Cases were therefore heard before the intermittent justices who applied the law
impartially. During his reign, a common law was gradually established in place of the
previous laws of the local barons. He also introduced a new jury system to replace the old
ordeal-based trial system. Besides, he shifted the trial of clergymen charged with
criminal offenses from the Bishop's court to the King's court. 亨利二世大大加强了王家法院，扩展了其司法工作的职权范围。他将全国分为六个审制区 。案件更多地由巡回法官审理，并不偏不倚地使用法律。在他统治时期，逐渐建立起超越 地方领主法律的普遍法。另外，他用陪审员制度代替了旧的残酷的审判制度。他坚持被控 犯有刑事罪的神职人员应由国王法庭审判，而不由主教法庭审判。
II．Contents and
the significance of the Great Charter 《大宪章》的内容及意义 Great Charter was signed by King John in 1215 under the
press of the barons. It consists of sixty-three clauses. Its important provisions
are as follows: (1) no tax should be made without the approval of the Grand Council; (2) no
freemen should be arrested, imprisoned or deprived of their property; (3) the Church
should possess all its rights, together with freedom of elections; (4) London and other
towns should retain their traditional rights and privileges, and (5) there should be
the same weights and measures throughout the country. Although The Great Charter has long
been popularly regarded as the foundation of English liberties, it was a statement
of the feudal and legal relationships between the Crown and the barons, a guarantee
of the freedom of the Church and a limitation of the powers of the king. The
spirit of the Great Charter was the limitation of the powers of the king, keeping them within
the bounds of the feudal law of the land. 《大宪章》是约翰国王1215年在封建贵族压力下签定的。《大宪章》总共63条，其中最重 要的内容是：(1) 未经大议会同意，不得征税；(2) 只有根据国家有关法律才能逮捕、监禁 自由人以及剥夺他们的财产；(3)教会应享受其所有权利且有选举自由；（4） 伦敦和其它 城镇应保留其古时的权力和特权；(5)
全国要使用统一的重量和长度度量衡。尽管人们普遍 认为《大宪章》为英国的自由奠定了基础，但该宪章只是规定国王和贵族之间封建关系和 法律关系的文件，保证了教会的自由，限制了国王权利。《大宪章》的精神是限制国王权 力，使其在英国封建法律允许的范围内活动。
III.The origins of the English Parliament 英国议会的起源 The Great Council is known to be the prototype of the
current British Parliament. In 1265, Simon de Montfort summoned the Great Council, together
with two knights from each county and two citizens from each town. It later
developed into the House of Lords and the House of Commons. Its main role was to offer advice.
There were no elections or parties. And the most important part of Parliament was
the House of Lords. 大议会是当今英国议会的原型。1265年，西门德孟福尔召开大议会，各县有两名骑士，各 镇有两名市民参加。大议会发展到后来演变成议会，分为上议院和下议院。其作用是咨询 而非决定；也没有选举和政党。议会的最重要的部分是上议院。
IV．The Hundred
Years' War and its consequences. 百年战争及其结果 The Hundred Years’ War refers to the war between England and
France that lasted intermittently from 1337 to 1453. The causes of the war were
partly territorial and partly economic. The territorial causes were related with the
possession by the English kings of the large duchy in France, while the French kings coveted
this large slice. The economic causes were connected with cloth manufacturing towns in
Flanders, which were the importer of English wool, but they were loyal to the French
king politically. Besides, England's desire to stop France from giving aid to Scots and
a growing sense of nationalism were the other causes. The English's being driven out of France is regarded as a
blessing for both countries. If the English had remained in France, the superior size and
wealth of France would have hindered the development of a separate English national
identity, while France was hindered so long as a foreign power occupied so much French
territory. 百年战争指1337年到1453年英法之间一场断断续续的战争，战争的起因既有领土因素又有 经济因素。领土起因尤其是与英国国王拥有法国的阿基坦大片公爵领地有密切关系，随着 法国国王势力日增，他们渴望占领这片在他们领土内的土地。经济原因则与弗兰德斯有关 。弗兰德斯地区生产棉布的城镇是英国羊毛的主要进口商，但这些城镇在政治上却效忠法 国国王。其他原因还有英国试图阻止法国帮助苏格兰人，以及不断觉醒的民族意识。 战争的结果：把英国人赶出法国对两个国家都是幸事：若国车人继续留在法国，那么法国 人在领土和财富上所占的优势必然会阻碍分离的英国民族的发展；而法国民族被外国势力 占领了众多的领土，发展更是长期受阻。
V. The Black Death 黑死病 The Black Death is the modern name given to the deadly
epidemic disease spread by rat fleas across Europe in the 14th century. It swept
through England in the summer of 1348. It reduced England's population from four million to
two million by the end of the 14th century. The economic consequences of the Black Death were
far-reaching. As a result of the plague, much land was left untended and there was a terrible
shortage of labour. The surviving peasants had better bargaining power and were in a
position to change their serfdom into paid labour. Some landlords, unable or
unwilling to pay higher wages, tried to force peasants back into serfdom. In 1351 the government
issued a Statute of Labourers which made it a crime for peasants to ask for more
wages or for their employers to pay more than the rates laid down by the
Justices of the Peace. 黑死病是指由鼠疫蚤传播的致命的淋巴腺鼠疫，是一种流行疾病，在14世纪传播了到欧洲 。1348年夏天横扫全英国。英国的人口在14世纪末从400万锐减至200万。 黑死病对经济造成的后果更为深远。鼠疫导致了大片土地无人照管和劳动力极度匮乏。地 主想把耕地变为人力需求较少的牧场。存活的农民处于有利的计价还价地位，从农奴变为 雇佣劳动力。于是一些支付不起或不愿意支付较高工资的地主想方设法迫使农民重返农奴 地位。1351年政府颁布“劳工法令”，规定农民们涨工资的要求，或者是雇主支付比地方官 制订的工资水平要高的工资都是犯罪。
VI. The Peasant Uprising of 1381 and its significance 1381年农民起义及其意义 Armed villagers and townsmen of Kent and Essex, led by Wat
Tyler and Jack Straw, moved on London in June, 1381. The king was forced to accept
their demands. Most of the rebels dispersed and went home, while Tyler and other
leaders stayed on for more rights. Tyler was killed at a meeting with the king. The uprising was brutally suppressed, but it had
far-reaching significance in English history. First, it directed against the rich clergy, lawyers
and the landowners. Second, it dealt a telling blow to villeinage, and third, a new class
of yeomen farmers emerged, paving the way to the development of capitalism. 1381年6月，在瓦特 泰勒和杰克 斯特劳领导下，凯特郡和埃塞克斯郡的农民和市民武装起 来发动起义，并向伦敦进发。国王被迫接受了他们的要求。大多数起义农民解散回家，但 泰勒和其他坚决的农民留下来要求得到更多的法律、宗教和政治权利。泰勒在又一次与国 王的会见中被杀死。 尽管起义被血腥镇压，但在英国历史上留下了深远的影响。这次起义具有真实的社会性， 把矛头直接对准了富有的教职人员、律师和地主。这次起义沉重打击了封建农奴制度，产 生了全新的自耕农阶级，为资本主义发展铺设了道路。
Chapter 4 第四章 Transition to the Modern Age (1455-1688) 向现代英国的过渡 I. Transition to the Modern Age (1455-1485) 向现代英国的过渡(1455年-1485年) The Wars of Rose 玫瑰战争 The name Wars of the Roses was refer to the battles between
the House of Lancaster, symbolized by the read rose, and that of York, symbolized by
the white, from 1455 to 1485. Henry Tudor, descendant of Duke of Lancaster won
victory at Bosworth Fireld in 1485 and put ht country under the rule of the Tudors. From
these Wars, English feudalism received its death blow. The great medieval
nobility was much weakened. 玫瑰战争是指，从1455年到1485年，以红玫瑰为象征的兰开斯特大家族和以白玫瑰为象征 的约克家族之间战争的普遍接受的名称。1485年，兰开斯特家族的后代亨利都铎取得了博 斯沃恩战役的胜利，建立了都铎王朝。这些战争使英国的封建主义受到致命打击，贵族阶 层受到了削弱。 II. The English Reformation 英国的宗教改革 Henry VIII was above all responsible for the religious
reform of the church. There were three main causes: a desire for change and reform in the
church had been growing for many years and now, encouraged by the success of Martin
Luther, many people believed its time had come; the privilege and wealth of the
clergy were resented; and Henry needed money. 最重要的是，亨利八世负责进行教会的宗教改革。改革原因有三个主要方面：改革教会的 渴望已有多年，现在又受马丁路德成功的鼓舞，许多人认为时机已到；人们痛恨教职人员 的威望和财富；亨利需要钱。 The reform began as a struggle for a divorce and ended in
freedom from the Papacy. Henry VIII wanted to divorce Catherine of Aragon but the
Pope refused. Henry’s reforms was to get rid of the English Church’s connection with the
Pope, and to make an independent Church of England. He made this break with Rome
gradually between 1529 and 1534. He dissolved all of England’s monasteries and
nunneries because they were more loyal to the Pope than to their English kings. The laws
such as the Act of succession of 1534 and the Act of Supremacy of 1535 made his
reform possible. He established the church of England as the national church of
the country, and he made himself the supreme head of the church of England. 改革以争取离婚而开始，以脱离教皇而告终。亨利八世欲与阿拉贡的凯瑟琳离婚，但是教 皇拒绝了。亨利改革的目的是摆脱英国教会与教皇的联系，成立独立的英格兰教会。1529 年至1534年间逐渐地与罗马脱离了关系。他解散了所有英国的修道院和修女院，因为后者 对教皇比对英国国王更忠诚。1534年的《继位法》和1535年的《至尊法案》使改革具有了 可行性。1535年他获“英格兰教会最高首脑”之称号。 Henry VIII’s reform stressed the power of the monarch and
certainly strengthened Henry’ s position; Parliament had never done such a long and
important piece of work before, its importance grew as a result. His attack on the Pope’s
power encouraged many critics of abuses of the Catholic Church. England was moving away
form Catholicism towards protestaintism. 改革的三大影响：亨利的改革强调了君主权力，自然加强了亨利的地位；议会以往从未做 过如此漫长而重要的工作，自然其重要性也有所加强；他对教皇权力的打击鼓舞许多人批 评指责天主教会，并希望从天主教转向新教。
III. Elizabeth I (1558-1603) 伊莉莎白一世（1558年-1603年） Elizabeth's religious reform and her foreign policy 伊莉莎白的宗教改革和外交政策 Elizabeth's religious reform was a compromise of views. She
broke Mary's ties with Rome and restored her father's independent Church of England,
i.e. keeping to Catholic doctrines and practices but to be free of the Papal control.
He religious settlement was unacceptable to both the extreme Protestants known as
Puritans and to ardent Catholics. For nearly 30 years Elizabeth successfully played off
against each other the two great Catholic powers, France and Spain, and prevented England
from getting involved in any major European conflict. Through her marriage alliances
which were never materialized, Elizabeth managed to maintain a friendly relationship with
France. So England wad able to face the danger from Spain. 伊莉莎白的宗教改革是各种观点的妥协。她中断玛丽与罗马的关系，恢复父王独立的英格 兰教会，也就是说保持天主教教条及习俗，但不受教皇控制。她的宗教和解既不被极端的 新教徒（即清教徒）所接受，也不为虔诚的天主教徒所接受。 近30年的时间，伊莉莎白成功地令两大天主教强国法国和西班牙互相斗杀，从而免于英国 卷入任何主要的欧洲国的冲突。通过她从未具体化的联姻，伊莉莎白设法与法国维持友好 关系，因此英国能面对来自西班牙的危险。
IV. The English Renaissance 英国文艺复兴 Distinctive features of the English Renaissance 英国文艺复兴的特点 1) English culture was revitalized not so much directly by
the classics as by contemporary Europeans under the influence of the classics; 2) England as an insular country followed a course of social
and political history which was to a great extent independent of the course of history
elsewhere in Europe; 3) Owing to the great genius of the 14th century poet
Chaucer, the native literature was sufficiently vigorous and experienced in assimilating for
foreign influences without being subjected by them; 4) English Renaissance coincided with the Reformation in
England. 英国文艺复兴的五个特点：1）英国文化的复兴并不是直接通过古典作品，崦是通过受古典 作品影响同时代的欧洲人实现的；2）英格兰作为一个与大陆隔离的国家，其社会历史进程 很大程度上独立于欧洲其它国家；3）由于14世纪伟大的天才诗人乔叟的出现，英国本国文 学得以蓬勃发展，能够在吸收外国文学影响的同时，并未处于从属地位；4）英国文艺复兴 文学首先是艺术的，其次才是哲学的和学术的；5）文艺复兴和英格兰的宗教改革在时间上 有所交叉。 VI. The Civil Wars and their consequences Because of the absolute rule of Charles, the confrontation
between Charles I and the parliament developed into the civil war. The war began on
August 22,1642 and ended in 1651. Charles I was condemned to death. The English Civil War is also called the Puritan Revolution.
It has been seen as a conflict between the parliament and the King, and a conflict between
economic interests of the Crown. The economic interests of the urban middle classed
coincided with their religious ( Puritan) ideology while the Crown’s traditional economic
interests correspondingly allied with Anglican religious belief. The English Civil War
not only overthrew feudal system in England but also shook the foundation of the
feudal rule in Europe. It is generally regarded as the beginning of modern world history. 由于查尔斯的“君权神授”统治权，他与议会的对质发展成了内战。战争开始于1642年8月22 日，结束于1651年。最后查尔斯被处死。 英国内战又称为清教徒革命。这是议会和国王间的冲突，也是城市中产阶级的经济利益与 皇室传统经济利益之间的冲突。城市中产阶级经济利益刚好与他们的宗教（清教）思想吻 合，相应地，皇室传统的经济利益则与圣公会教的宗教信仰相结合在一起。英国内战不仅 推翻了英国的封建制度，而且动摇了欧洲封建经济的基础。英国内战通常被看作是现代世 界史的开端。 The Restoration 王政复辟 When Oliver Cromwell died in 1658 and was succeeded by his
son, Richard, the regime began to collapse. One of Cromwell's generals George Monck,
occupied London and arranged for new parliamentary elections. The Parliament
thus was elected in 1660 resolved the crisis by asking the late King's son to return
from his exile in France as king Charles II. It was called the Restoration. 1658年奥利弗克伦威尔去世，他的儿子理查德继任护国公，政权立即开始瓦解。克伦威尔 的一位将军乔治蒙克占领伦敦，安排新的议会选举。1660年选出的议会要求上一任国王的 儿子长期流亡地法国回国作国王查尔斯二世，从而解决了危机。这就是所谓的王政复辟。 The Glorious Revolution of 1688 1688年光荣革命 In 1685 Charles II died and was succeeded by his brother
James II. James was brought up in exile in Europe, was a Catholic. He hoped to rule
without giving up his personal religious vies. But England was no more tolerant of a
Catholic king in 1688 than 40 years ago. So the English politicians rejected James II, and
appealed to a Protestant king, William of Orange, to invade and take the English
throne. William landed in England in 1688. The takeover was relatively smooth, with no
bloodshed, nor any execution of the king. This was known as the Glorious
Revolution. 1685年查尔斯二世去世，由其弟詹姆斯二世继位。詹姆斯二世从小在欧洲流亡长大，是个 天主教徒，他希望不放弃个人宗教信仰统治国家。但是1688的英国已不象40年前那样能容 忍天主教徒当国王了。英国政客反对詹姆斯二世，他们呼吁信奉新教的国王，奥兰治亲王 威谦入侵英国夺取王位。1688年11月15日威廉在托尔比登陆并占领伦敦。这一占领相对平 静，既未流血也未处死国王，所以就称为“光荣革命”。 The Gunpowder Plot of 1605 1605年 The Gunpowder Plot of 1605 was the most famous of the
Catholic conspiracies. On Nov. 5,1605, a few fanatical Catholics attempted to blow King
James and his ministers up in the House of Parliament where Guy Fawkes had planted barrels
of gun-powder in the cellars. The immediate result was the execution of Fawkes
and his fellow-conspirators and imposition of severe anti-Catholic laws. The long-term
result has been an annual celebration on Nov. 5, when a bonfire is lit to turn a guy
and a firework display is arranged. 1605年的火药阴谋案是最著名的天主教阴谋。1605年11月5日，几个狂热的天主教徒企图 在议会大厦炸死国王和大臣，盖伊福克斯已在地窖放了炸药桶。结果是福克斯和同伙被立 即处死，以及更严厉的反天主教法律的颁发。长斯结果是每年11月5日举行庆祝仪式，点燃 火堆焚烧盖伊模拟像并燃放烟火。
第五章 The Rise and Fall of the British Empire (1688-1990) 大英帝国的兴衰 I. Whigs and Tories 辉格党人和托利党人 These two party names originated with the Glorious
Revolution (1688). 这两个政党名称皆起源于1688年的光荣革命。 The Whig were those who opposed absolute monarchy and
supported the right to religious freedom for Nonconformists. The Whig were to form
a coalition with dissident Tories in the mid-19th century and become the Liberal Party. 辉格党人是指那些反对绝对王权，支持新教徒宗教自由权利的人。辉格党人在19世纪中叶 与持不同意见的托利党人组盟组成自由党。 The Tories were those who supported hereditary monarchy and
were reluctant to remove kings. The Tories were the forerunners of the
Conservative Party. 托利党人是指那些支持世袭王权、不愿去除国王的人。托利党是保守党的前身。 I. Agricultural Changes in the Late 18th Century 18世纪末的农业革命 During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the
“open-field” system ended when the Enclosure Act was passed. The movement lasted for centuries.
Agricultural enclosure had good as well as bad results: 18世纪末、19世纪初的农业革命期间，随着《圈地法》的颁布，传统的“开放田地”制结束 。圈地运动持续了将近一个多世纪。农业圈地运动的利弊共存： （1） Farms became bigger and
bigger units as the great bought up the small; 由于大农场兼并了小农场，农场成为越来越在的生产单位； （2） More vegetables, more milk
and more dairy produce were consumed, and diet became more varied; 人们消费的蔬菜，牛奶及奶制品越来越多，饮食种类愈加丰富； （3） Enclosure was a disaster for
the tenants evicted from their lands by the enclosures. These peasant farmers were forced to look for
work in towns. Enclosure led to mass emigration, particularly to the New World; 圈地对佃家而言是场灾难，他们被赶出土地，被迫到城镇找工作。圈地运动导致了大规模 的移民，尤其是移民至新大陆。 （4） A new class hostility was
introduced into rural relationships. 农村关系中产生了新的阶级对立。
II. The Industrial Revolution (1780-1830) 工业革命（1780-1830） 1．The
industrial Revolution refers to the mechanisation of industry and the
consequent changes in social and economic organization in Britain in
the late 18th and early 19th centuries. 工业革命指的是17世纪末、18世纪初英国工业的机械化，以及因此而导致的社会结构和经 济结构的变化。 2．Britain was
the first country to industrialize because of the following factors: 英国成为第一个工业化的国家，原因如下： (1) Favourable geopraphical location. Britain was well
placed geographically to participate in European and world trade; 优越的地理位置：英国地理位置优越，适合参与欧洲与世界贸易； (2) Political stability. Britain had a peaceful society,
which, after the 17th century, was increasingly interested in overseas trade and colonies.
International trade brought wealth to merchants and city bankers. They and those who had
done well out of new farming methods provided capital in large quantities for
industralization. 政治局面稳定。17世纪后的英国社会宁静，对海外贸易和殖民地兴趣日增。国际贸易给商 人和城市银行家带来财富，他们加上由于新农作法而发家的人们为工业化提供了大笔资金 。 (3) Good foundation in economy. The limited monarchy which
resulted from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 ensured that the powerful economic
interests in the community could exert their influence over Government policy. 1688年光荣革命限制了君主的权力，这使得强大的经济利益集团能对议会政策施加影响。 (4) It was a country in which the main towns were never too
far from seaports, or from rivers, which could distribute their products. 英国的主要城镇皆靠近海港或河流，货物运送便利。 (5) Britain had many rivers, which were useful for transport
but also for water and steam power. Britain also had useful mineral resources. 英国许多河流不仅用于交通，还提供水力及蒸汽动力。英国还有可用的矿产资源。 (6) British engineers had sound training as craftsmen. 英国工程师为训练有素的手工艺人。 (7) The inventors were respected. They solved practical
problems. 发明家受人尊重，他们解决了实际难题。 (8) Probably laissez faire and “Protestant work ethic”
helped. 很可能利益于“放手干”及“新教工作道德”。 (9) England, Scotland, and Wales formed a customs union
after 1707 and this included Ireland after 1807. So the national market was not hindered
by internal customs barriers. 1707年后，英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士形成关税联盟，1807年后爱尔兰加入。因此，全国市 场不再受阴于内部的关税障碍。 (10) The enclosures and other improvements in agriculture
made their contributions by providing food for the rising population, labour for the
factories, and some of the raw materials needed by industry. 圈地运动和其它农业改良为增加的人口提供了粮食，为工厂提供了劳动力，为工业提供了 所需的一些原材料。 3．Typical
examples of the inventions during the Industrial Revolution 工业革命中一些重大创新 (1) John Kay’s flying shuttle in 1733; 1733年，约翰凯的飞梭； (2) James Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny in 1766; 1766年詹姆士哈格里夫斯詹妮纺纱机； (3) Richard Arkwright’s waterframe in 1769; 1769年理查德阿克赖特的水力纺织机； (4) Samuel Crompton’s mule in 1779 1779年塞缪尔克朗普顿的走绽纺纱机； (5) Edmund Cartwright’s power loom in 1784; 1784年爱德蒙卡特莱特发明的力织机； (6) James Watt’s steam engine in 1765. 1765年詹姆斯瓦特的高效蒸汽机。
4．Consequences
of the industrial Revolution 工业革命的结果 （1） Britain was by 1830 the “workshop of the world”; 英国成为了“世界工场”； （2） Towns grew rapidly and became
the source of the nation’s wealth. 城镇迅速兴起，成为国家财富的源泉。 （3） Mechanization destroyed the
livelihood of those who could not invest in it . The working men worked and lived in a appalling conditions. 机械化摧毁了不能投入其中的人们的生活。工人们在可怕的条件下劳动与生活。 （4） The industrial revolution
created the industrial working class, the proletariat, and it later led to trade unionism. 工业革命产生了工人阶级，即无产阶级。后来形成了工会制度。
III. The Chartist Movement (1836-1848) 宪章运动（1836-1848） 1. Reasons for parliamentary reforms. 议会改革的原因 (1) Power was monopolized by the aristocrats. 权力由贵族操纵。 (2) Representation of town and country, and North and South
was unfair. 城镇和农村，北方和南方的代表权极不平等。 (3) There were also various so-called rotten or pocket
boroughs. 还有各种称之为衰败或口袋选区的选区。 2．Three Reform
Bills 三个改革法案 Between 1832 and 1884 three Reform Bills were passed. 1832年至1884年间通过了三个改革法案。 a) The Reform Act of 1832 (also called the “Greater Charter
of 1832) abolished “rotten boroughs”, and redistributed parliamentary seats more fairly
among the growing tows. It also gave the vote to many householders and tenant’s, based
on the value of their property. 1832年的《改革法案》（也称为1832年的大宪章）废除了“衰败选区”；在新兴城镇中较为 公平地重新分配了议席；以财产价值为基础给予许多屋主和佃家。
b) The New Poor Law of 1834 forced the poor people into work
houses instead of giving them sufficient money to survive in their own homes. 1834年的新贫困法强迫穷人进工厂，而没有给他们足够的钱在自己的家里生存。 3．A People’s Charter 人民宪章 There was widespread dissatisfaction with the Reform Act of
1832 and the New Poor Law. In 1836, a group of skilled workers and small
shopkeepers formed the London Working Men’s Association. They drew up a charter of
political demands (a People’s Charter) in 1838, with the intention of presenting it to
Parliament. It had six points: (1)the vote for all adult males; (2)voting by secret ballot;
(3)equal electoral districts; (4)abolition of property qualifications for members of Parliament;
(5)payment of members of Parliament; (6)annual Parliaments, with a General Election
every June. 1832年的《改革法案》和《新贫困法》引起了普遍不满。1836年，一群技术工人和小店主 组成伦敦工厂联盟。他们于1838年起草了有关政治要求的宪章（人民宪章），想把它呈送 给议会。宪章有六点内容：（1）所有成年男子都有选举权；（2）进行无记名投票；（3） 平等选区；（4）议员选举废除财产资格要求；（5）议员应有报酬；（6）议会每年六月进 行大选。 4．Results of
the Chartist Movement 宪章运动的结果。 Chartism failed because of its weak and divided leadership,
and its lack of coordination with trade-unionism. The working class still immature,
without the leadership of a political party armed with correct revolutionary theory. The Chartist
movement was, however, the first nationwide working class movement and drew attention
to serious problems. The 6 points were achieved very gradually over the period of
1858-1918, although the sixth has never been practical. Lenin said that Chartism was “the
first broad, really mass, politically formed, proletarian revolutionary movement.” 由于领导层的软弱和分歧，由于缺少与工会的协调，宪章运动失败了。当时的工人阶级还 未成熟，没有正确的革命理论武装的政党领导。但是，宪章运动是第一次全国范围的工人 阶级运动，引起了对许多严重问题的关注。在1858至1918年间，六项要求逐渐达到，尽管 第六项从未成为现实。列宁说宪章运动是“第一个广泛的、真正群众参与的，有政治组织形 式的无产阶级革命运动。” I. Trade Unions and the Labour Party 工会和工党 1. The Trade Union Act of 1871 legalized the trade unions
and gave financial security. 1871年通过的《工会法》使工会合法化并给其财政保障。 2. The Labor Party had its origin in the Independent Labor
Party(ILP), which was formed in January, 1893. In 1900, representatives of trade unions,
the ILP, and a number of small socialist societies set up the Labor Representation
Committee (LRC). The LRC changed its name to the Labor Party for the general election
called for in 1906. 工党起源于独立工党，于1893年1月成立。1900年，工会代表，独立工党和许多小型社会 主义社团一起成立了工人代表委员会。1906年的大选迫使工人代表委员会及时更名为工党 。 II. Colonial Expansion 殖民扩张 1. The growth of dominions 自治领的兴起 English colonial expansion began with the colonization of
Newfoundland in 1583. Encouraged by Britain’s control of the seas, especially by
the rising tide of emigration, British colonialists stepped up their expansion to Canada,
Australia, and New Zealand, in the late 18th and the early 19th centuries. By 1900, Britain
had built up a big empire, “on which the sun never set”. It consisted of a vast number of
protectorates, Crown colonies, spheres of influence, and self-governing dominions. It
included 25% of the world’s population and area. 英国殖民扩张开始于1583年纽芬兰的殖民化。在18世纪末、19世纪初，受到海外移民浪潮 的鼓舞，英国殖民者很快加他们的扩张到加拿大、澳大利亚、新西兰。到1900年英国已建 立了“日不落”的大英帝国，包括受保护国、英国殖民地、势力范围和自治领，占世界人口与 面积的25%。 Canada was ceded to Britain by the 1763 Treaty of Paris.
French rights were guaranteed by the Quebec Act of 1774. The Canada Act of 1791
divided Canada into Upper Canada where the British had settled, and Lower Canada
populated by the French. The British North America Act of 1867 established
Canada as a dominion. 1763年签订的《巴黎条约》将加拿大割让给英国。1774年的《魁北克法》保证了法国的权 益。之后，1791年《加拿娃哈哈》把加拿大分为上加拿大和下加拿大，前者是英国人的定 居地，后者是法国人的居住点。1867年《英国北美法案》确定加拿大为自治领。 English began to transport convicts to Australia in 1788.
Free settlement began in 1816, and no convicts were sent to Australia after 1840. The gold
rushes (1851-1892) brought more people to Australia, and in 1901 the six self-governing
wer united in one dominion-the independent Commonwealth of Australia. 1788年英国人开始把囚犯流放到澳大利亚。1816年开始可以自由定居，1840年后囚犯不 再流放到澳大利亚。1851年至1892年的淘金热使更多的人拥到澳洲。1901年，六个自治 领统一为一个自治领—澳大利亚独立联邦。 New Zealand became a separate colony of Britain in 1841, achieved
self-government in 1857, became a dominion under the British crown in 1907 and
was made completely independent in 1931. 1841年新西兰. The
Conquest of India 征服印度 The British East India Company established in 1600. By 1819
the British conquest of most India was almost complete. After the muting of Bengal
army in 1857, the control of India passed to the British Crown and Queen Victoria became
Empress of India in 1877. 1600年英国东印度公司的建立是经济渗透的实例。到1819年英国对印度的征服已基本完成 。1857年东印度公司孟加拉军队的当地士兵发动兵变后，1858年印度改由英国君主统治。 1877年维多利来女王正式成为印度女皇。
2. The Scramble for Africa 对非洲的掠夺 At the beginning of the 19th century British possessions
were confined to forts and slave trading posts on the west coast. Over the 19th century the
interior of Africa was gradually discovered and colonized by Europeans. Britain led
the way in the race. Apart from the colonies in the South and West, Britain was also
involved in the North East in Egypt and the Sudan. 19世纪初英国的占领地局限于西海岸的堡垒和奴隶交易点。整个19世纪欧洲人逐渐发现并 殖民了非洲内陆。在这场瓜分竞赛中英国占了较大的优势。除了不断扩张的南部和西部殖 民地后，英国又凯觎东北的埃及和苏丹。
3. Aggression against China 侵略中国 In 1840, the Opium War broke out between Britain and China.
Since then, Britain gradually invaded many coastal areas and imposed a series of
unequal treaties upon China. 1840年英国和中国发动了鸦片战争。从那时起，英国逐渐侵略了中国的许多沿海城市，并 签定了许多不平等条约。 VI. Twentieth Century 二十世纪 1. Britain and the First World War 英国和第一次世界大战 The Work War I was fought from 1914 to 1918 primarily
between two European Power blocs: “the Central power”. Germany and Austria-Hungary, and
the “Allies”, Britain, France and Russia. During the war, the Britain lost much.
Apart from the loss of manpower, there had been considerable disruption of the
economy and society. Out of the war settlement came the establishment of the league of
Nations. 第一次世界大战是从1914年至1918年，战争主要在两大欧洲集团间进行：“同盟国”，包括 德国和奥匈帝国，和“协约国”，包括英国、法国和俄罗斯。一战中英国损失惨重。除了劳动 力损失，还有巨大的经济与社会瓦解。
2. Britain Between the Two World Wars 两次世界大战期间的英国 The effects of the New York Stock Market Crash of 1929 soon
spread throughout Europe and by 1931 Britain was entering the Great
depression. 1929年纽约股票交易所崩溃的影响迅速波及欧洲，到1931年英国进入经济大萧条。 3. Britain and the Second World War 英国与第二次世界大战 As Adolf Hitler and Nazism showed off their aggressive
momentum in Europe, Chamberlain, the Prime Minister, found his policy of
appeasement of German aggression was no longer tenable, and was forced to declare
war on Germany on September 3,1939. 当阿道夫希特勒及纳粹主义显示他们对欧洲的侵略意图时，首相张伯伦发现他的绥靖政策 已站不住脚，只得于1939年9月3日对德宣战。 4. Postwar Britian 战后的英国 (1) One of the most far-reaching consequences of the War was
that it hastened the end of Britain’s empire. 二战最为深远的结果之一是加速了大英帝国的瓦解。
(2) In 1952 Princess Elizabeth was crowned Queen Elizabeth
II. Many people through television saw the ceremony. 1952年伊莉莎白公主加冕成为伊莉莎白女王二世。新发明的电视使许多人看到了加冕仪式 的过程。 (4) In January 1973, Britain became a full member of the
European Economic Community which was still called the Common Market in 1973.
Britain witnessed the first oil shock in 1973. 1973年1月，英国终于成为欧洲经济共同体的正式成员国。1973年仍称为共同市场。1973 年英国经历了第一次石油禁运。 (5) Mrs Thatcher 撒切尔主义 Thatcherism referred to the policies put forward by Margaret
Thatcher, the first woman prime minister in England in 1979. The main contents of her
policies included the return to private ownership of state-owned industries, the use of
monetarist policies to control inflation, the weakening of trade unions the strengthening
of the role of market forces in the economy, and an emphasis on law and order. To some
extent her program was successful and she led one of the most remarkable periods in
the British economy. 1979年撒切尔夫人成为英国第一任女首相。她提出的政策被为“撒切尔主义”。其内容包括 国有工业私有化，采用货币主义政策以控制通货膨胀，削弱工会的影响，加强市场因素在 经济中的作用，强调法律和秩序。在一定程度上讲，她的计划是成功的。她领导英国经济 度过了一段最繁华的时期之一。
成为独立殖民地，1857年实现自治，1907年成为英皇属下的自治领，1931年完全独立。 Chapter 6 第六章 The Economy 英国经济
I. The Evolution of the British Economy since the War The evolution of the British economy since WWII falls into
three periods: 二战后英国经济发展可分为三个阶段： (1) Steady development in the 50s and 60s: The British
economy in this period is characterized by slow but steady growth, low unemployment
and great material prosperity with rising standards of consumption. （1）战后50-60年代平稳发展时期。其主要特点是经济缓慢而持续增长，失业率低，物质 丰富，人民消费水平不断增长。 (2) Economic recession in the 70s: In the 1970s among the
developed countries, Britain maintained the lowest growth rate and the highest inflation
rate, and the high record of trade deficits. （2）70年代经济滞胀。在70年代，英国在所有的发达资本主义国家中，始终保持最低经 济增长率，最高的通货膨胀率，和最高的贸易赤字纪录。 (3) Economic recovery in the 80s: An outstanding feature of
the economic recovery in the 80s was its length, lasting seven years. Another was the
improved financial position of the government, with stronger current account of the
balance of payments. （3）80年代经济复苏。一个显著特点是时间长，复苏持续了7年。另一个特点是国际收支 大大盈余，政府金融地位最高。 Measures taken by Mrs. Thatcher's government to improve the
economy Mrs. Thatcher's government took numerous measures to improve
the efficiency of the economy during the past decade, using both macroeconomic and
microeconomic policies. 撒切尔政府运用宏观经济政策和微观经济政策，采取许多措施提高经济效益。 (1) Macroeconomic measures were directed towards bringing
down the rate of inflation and achieving price stability. 宏观经济政策直接针对降低通货膨胀率和维持物价稳定。 (2) Microeconomic policies were aimed at working with the
grain of market forces by encouraging enterprise, efficiency and flexibility. 微观经济政策旨在通过鼓励实业，效率和灵活性共同努力提高市场竞争力。 Reasons for the British coal mining is called a “sick”
industry today. Reasons for the British coal mining is called a “sick”
industry today. 英国煤矿被称为“生病”工业的原因。 Today the coal industry in Britain is on the decline，the number of miners,
collieries and the total output have been falling. 如今的英国煤矿业衰退，从而导致矿工、煤矿的数量和总产量都大大下降。 The reasons for the decline are as follows: exhaustion of
old mines, costly operations of extraction, poor old equipment, little investment, fall in
demand due to imports of cleaner, cheaper and more efficient fuels, etc. 煤工业衰退的原因包括：老煤矿的枯竭，昂贵的提炼费用，破旧的设备，极少的投资，由 于进口更干净、更便宜、更高效的燃料导致的需求下降等等。 Britain’s oil and natural gas 英国的石油和天然气 Natural gas was discovered in 1965 and oil in 1970 under the
North Sea. Today Britain is not only self-sufficient in oil but also has a surplus
for export. The transport and domestic heating systems mostly depend on oil. So does the
food supply, because most agriculture is highly mechanized. Modern farming requires
things which are all oil-based. 在1965年及1970年在北海发现天然气和石油。今天英国的石油不仅能自给自足，还有盈余 供出口。交通和家庭供热系统主要依靠石油，因为大部分农业的高度机械化，食品供应也 靠石油。 Main problems associated with Britain’s iron and steel
industry today. 如今英国钢铁工业的主要问题。 British iron and steel industry is declining for the
following reasons: 英国钢铁工业衰退的原因如下： 1. Local supplies of iron ore have become exhausted; 当地贮备枯竭； 2. Old fashioned furnaces for making coke cannot recover
valuable by-products; 他们生产焦炭的老式炉不能提取有价值的副产品， 3. Blast furnaces, steelworks, and rolling mills are often
separated from each other and thus cannot perform as well as more compact operation; 高炉、钢铁厂和轧钢厂经常分开，导致不如更紧凑的企业出效益； 4. Many steelworks have to be closed down, causing major
unemployment in an area. 许多钢铁厂倒闭，导致该地区的大批人失业。
The main textile producing regions of Britain are the East
Midlands, Yorkshire, Humberside, and Northern Ireland. New Industries New industries include microprocessors and computers,
biotechnology and other high-tech industries. There are three areas in Britain which
have seen some high-tech industrial growth: (1).the area between London and South
Wales, (2).the Cambridge area of East Anglia and (3).the area between Glasgow and
Edinburgh in Scotland. The third area is the most spectacular of the three and is now
often referred to as the “Silicon
Glen”. By the end of 1985 half of Britain’s microchip output was estimated to have come from Scotland. 英国主要纺织基地是现在的中东部，约克郡和汉伯塞德郡及北爱尔兰。 The reasons behind the decline of Britain's textile industry
are: 英国纺织业的衰退原因如下： (1) Exports of textiles have not competed well with those of
other foreign producers who have managed to produce cheaper goods. 纺织品出口不能很好地与设法生产出更便宜商品的国外产家竞争。 (2) There has been a rise in cheaper imports of textiles to
Britain from foreign producers. 英国增加了从外国产家进口更廉价纺织品。 (3) Poor and outdated management decisions have caused
problem. 薄弱及过时的管理决策导致许多问题。 (4) Substitutions of human-made fibres have been made for
natural fibres. 人造纤维代替品已取代了天然纤维。 (5) An improvement of output per worker has been achieved,
due to mechanization. 由于机械化，每个工人的生产量有了提高。
第七章 Government and Administration 英国政府机构 The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy, the head of
state is a king or a queen. The United Kingdom is governed, in the name of the Sovereign
by His or Her Majesty’s Government. The System of parliamentary government is not
based on a written constitution, the British constitution is not set out in any
single document. It is made up of statute law, common law and conventions. The Judiciary
determines common law and interprets statutes. 联合王国是君主立宪制国家,国家的首脑是国王或女王。联合王国以君的名义,由国王或女王 陛下政府治理。英国的议会制度并不是基于成文宪法,英国宪法不由单一文件构成,而由成文 法,习惯法和惯例组成。司法部门裁定习惯法或解释成文法。 I．The Monarchy 君主制 1.Elizabeth II, her title in the United Kingdom is
“Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern
Ireland and Her Other Realms and Territories, Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender
of the Faith. 伊莉莎白二世，她的全称是“上帝神佑，大布列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国以及她的其他领土和 领地的女王，英联邦元首，国教保护者伊莉莎白二世。”
2.The Queen is the symbol of the whole nation. In law, She
is head of the executive, an integral part of the legislature, head of the judiciary, the
commander-in-chief of all the armed forces and the “supreme governor” of the Church of
England. She gives Royal Assent to Bills passed by parliament. 女王是国家的象征。从法律上讲，她是行政首脑，立法机构的组成部分，司法首脑，全国 武装部队总司令，英国国教“至高无上”的领袖。她任命首相和重要的政府官员。对议会通过 的法案给予御准。 3.The monarch actually has no real power. The monarch’s
power are limited by law and Parliament. Constitutional monarchy began after the Glorious
Revolution in 1688. 君主政体实际已无实权。它的权力受限于法律和议会。君主立宪制是从1688年的光荣革命 后开始。 III．Parliament 议会 1.The United Kingdom is a unitary, not a federal, state.
Parliament consists of the Sovereign, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. 英国是中央集权国家，而不是联邦制国家。议会由君主，上议院和下议院组成。
2.The main functions of Parliament are: (1) to pass laws;
(2) to provide, by voting for taxation, the means of carrying on the work of government;
(3) to examine government Policy and administrations, including proposal for
expenditure; and (4) to debate the major issues of the day. 议会的主要作用是：（1）通过立法；（2）投票批准税为政府工作提供资金；（3）检查政 府政策和行政管理，包括拨款提议；（4）当天的议题辩论。 3.The House of Lords is made up of the Lords Spiritual and
the Lords Temporal. The main function of the House of Lords is to bring the wide
experience of its members into the process of lawmaking. In other words, the non-elected
House is to act as a chamber of revision, complementing but not rivaling the elect House. 贵族院（上议院）由神职贵族和世俗贵族组成。它的主要作用是用议员的丰富经验帮助立 法。换而言之，非选举的上议院是修正议院，补充而非反对由选举产生的下议院。
4.The House of Common is elected by universal adult suffrage
and consists of 651 Members of Parliament (MPs). It is in the House of Commons
that the ultimate authority. 下议院（平民院）由成人普选产生，由651名议员组成。下议院拥有最终立法权。 5.Britain is divided 651 constituencies. Each of the
constituencies returns one member to the House of Commons. A general Election must be held
every five years and is often held at more frequent intervals. 英国被划分为651个选区，每个选区选一名下议院议员。大选必须五年举行一次，但经常不 到五年就进行一次选举。 6.Britain has a number of parties, but there are only two
major parties. These two parties are the Conservative Party and the Labour Party. Since 1945,
either the Conservative Party or the Labour Party has held power. The party which
wins sufficient seats at a General Election to command a majority of Government. The
leader of the majority party is appointed Prime Minister. The party which wins the second
largest number of seats becomes the Official Opposition, with its own leader and
“shadow cabinet ”. The rule of Opposition is to help the formulation of policy. Criticizes
the Government and debate with the Government. 英国有很多政党，但有两个主要的政党—保守党和工党。从1945年以来，两党一直轮流执 政，在大选中获多数议席因而在下议院拥有多数支持者的政党组建政府，多数党领袖由君 主任命为首相。获得第二多数议席的政党则正式成为“反对党”，有自己的领袖和影子内阁。 反对党的目的是帮助制定政策，它可以经常给政府提出批评性的建议和修正议案。
III.The Cabinet and Ministry 内阁和内阁部长 1. The Prime Minister presides over the Cabinet, is
responsible for the allocation of functions among ministers and informs the Queen at regular
meetings of general business of the Government. Cabinet members hold meetings
under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister for a few hours each week to decide
Government policy on major issues. 首相主持内阁，负责分配大臣们的职能，在定期会见女王时向女王报告政府事务。内阁在
首相的主持下，每周开会几小时，以决定在重大问题上政府的政策。
2. Ministers are responsible collectively to Parliament for
all Cabinet decisions; individual Ministers are responsible to Parliament for the work of
their department. 内阁的所有决定由大臣集体向议会负责，各大臣又为各自部门的工作向议会负责。
IV．The Privy
Council 枢密院 1. The Privy Council was formerly the chief source of
executive power in the state and give private advice to the King. So the Privy Council was
also called the King’s Council in history. Today its role is largely formal, advising the
sovereign to approve certain government decrees. 枢密院原来是政府行政权力的源泉，给君主提供“私人”建议。它在历史上也称为国王议会。 今天它的主要作用是礼节性的，如建议君主批准政府的法令。
2. Its membership is about 400, and includes all Cabinet
ministers, the speaker of the House of Common and senior British and Commonwealth
statement. 它的主要成员有400人左右，包括内阁阁员，下议院院长及英国，英联邦的高级政治家等。
V．Government
Department and the Civil Service 政府各部和公务员部 1. The principal Government department main includes: the
Treasury, the House of office, the Foreign and Commonwealth office, the Ministry of
Defense… 主要的政府部门包括：财务部，内务部，外交部，国防部等。
2. Members of the Civil Service are called Civil Services.
They staff government departments. Civil Servants are recruited mainly by
competitive examination. Civil servants do not belong to any political party. Changes of
Government do not involve changes in departmental staff, There are about 541800 civil
servants in Britain now. 文职人员部的成员被成为公务员。公务员主要是通过竞争考试录用。公务员部门不属于任 何政党，政府的变更并不影响部门职员的变更。英国现约有541800名公务员。 VI．Local
Government 地方政府部门 1. There are two main tiers of local authority throughout
England and Wales: counties and the smaller districts. Now, England and Wales are
divided into 53 counties which are sub-divided into 369 districts. 英格兰和威尔士实行两级地方政府制—郡和比郡小的区。现在英格兰和威尔士分为53个郡 ，郡下分为369个区。 2. Greater London is divided into 32 boroughs. 大伦敦被分为32个行政区。 第八章 Justice and the law 法律与司法机构 There is no single legal system in the United Kingdom. A
feature common to all systems of law in the United Kingdom is that there is no complete
code. The sources of law include (1) statutes; (2) a large amount of “unwritten” or
common law; (3) equity law; (4) European Community. Another common feature is the
distinction made between criminal law and civil law. 联合王国不实行完全统一的法律制度。联合王国所有法律制度的一个共同特点是没有以部 完整的法典。法典来源包括：（1）成文法；（2）大量的“不成文法”或习惯法；（3）衡平 法；（4）欧共体法。另一个共同的特点是刑法和民法之间的区别。 I．Criminal
Proceedings 刑事诉讼程序 1. In England and Wales, once the police have charged a
person with a criminal offence, the crown Prosecution Service assumes control of the case
reviews the evidence to decide whether to prosecute. 在英格兰和威尔士，一旦警察指控某人犯有刑事罪，皇家检察总署就要接管此案，并独立 地审核证据以决定是否起诉。
2. In Britain all criminal trial are held in open count
because the criminal law presumes the innocence of the accused until he has been proved guilty
beyond reasonable doubt. The prosecution and the defense get equal treatment. No
accused person has to answer the question of the police before trial. He is not
compelled to give evidence in count. Every accused person has the right to employ a legal
adviser to conduct his defense. If he can not afford to pay, he may be granted aid
at public expense. In criminal trial by jury, the judge passes sentence, but the jury
decided the issue of guilt or innocence. The jury composed of 12 or ordinary people. If
the verdict of the jury can not be unanimous, it must be a majority. 在英国，所有的刑事审判都在法院公开进行。因为刑法认为，在消除合理怀疑证明被告有 罪之前，他是无辜的。原告与被告同样平等，审判时被告不必回答警察的问题，不许强迫 被告提供证据。每位被告都有权雇佣律师为其辩护。如果他不能支付律师费，可以用公用 费用提供帮助。在由陪审团进行的刑事审判中，法官判刑，但陪审团决定是否有罪。陪审 团一般由12人组成。如果陪审团不能做出一致判决，也必须是多数决定。 3.A verdict of “ not guilt” means acquittal for the accused,
who can never again be charged with that specific crime. “无罪”裁决意味着被告无罪，并且永远不得再以此罪名对其指控。
II. Criminal Courts 刑事法庭 1. Criminal Courts in England and Wales 英格兰和威尔士的刑事法庭 Magistrates’ Courts which try summary offences and “either
way” offences. A magistrates’ court, which is open to the public and the
media, usually consists of three unpaid “lay” magistrates-known as justices of the peace-who
are advised on point of law and procedure by a legally qualified assistant. A
Magistrates’ court sits without a jury. 治安（警事）法庭，负责审理判决犯罪，也审理“任意方式”罪行。治安法庭对公众和媒体公 开，通常由三位无薪的“外行”地方官——地方治安官组成，由懂得法律知识的书记员和助手 给他们提供法律规定和程序方面的建议。治安法庭审察时没有陪审团。
Youth Court which try most cases involving people under 18. 青少年法庭，负责审理18岁以下青年的大多数案件。 The Crown Court tries the most serious offences and ‘either
way” offences referred to it by magistrates. The Crown Court is presided over by High
Court judges, full-time circuit Judges and part-time Recorders England and Wales are divided
into six circuits for the purpose of hearing criminal case. Each circuit is divided
into areas containing one or more centers of High Court and Crown Court. 皇家刑事法庭。负责审理最严重的罪行和由地方法官提交的“任意方式”罪行。皇家刑事法庭 由高级法院法官，全职巡回法官和兼任刑事法官主持。为审理刑事案，英格兰和威尔士被 分为六个巡回区，每个巡回区又分区域，每个区域有一个或多个高级法庭和皇家刑事法庭 。 2. Criminal courts in Scotland 苏格兰的刑事法庭 There are three criminal courts in Scotland.（1）the High Court of Justiciary;(2) the sheriff court;(3) the district court. Scotland has two types
of criminal procedure, know as solemn procedure and summary procedure. In solemn procedure,
a defendant is tried by a judge sits without a jury. 英格兰有三种刑事法院：（1）高级法院；（2）郡法院；（3）区法院。英格兰有两种刑事 诉讼：庄重诉讼和即决诉讼。庄重诉讼里，被告由陪审团和法官审理。在即决诉讼中，法 官独自审理，不用陪审团。 3. Criminal courts in Northern Ireland 北爱尔兰的刑事法庭 Cases involving minor summary offences are heard by
magistrates’ courts presided over by a full-time legally qualified resident magistrate. County
courts are primarily civil law courts. The Crown Court deals with criminal trails on
indictment. 涉及轻微即决犯罪的案件由治安法庭听审，法庭由全职的法律合格的常驻治安法官主持。 郡法庭主要是民事法庭。皇家刑事法庭根据起诉进行刑事审判.
III．Civil Courts 民事法庭 1. Civil Courts in England and Wales 英格兰和威尔士的民事法庭 Magistrates’ Courts have limited civil jurisdiction, The
main courts of civil jurisdiction are County Courts, the High Court deals with the more
complicated civil case. Its jurisdiction covers mainly civil and some criminal cases. It has three
divisions: (1) the family Division; (2) the Chancery Division; (3) the Queen’s Bench Division. 治安法庭只有一定的民事审判权。主要行使民事司法权的是民事法院，高等法院处理更为 复杂的民事案。主要包括民事案和一些刑事案，高等法院有三个分支：（1）家事庭；（2 ）娃哈哈官庭；（3）王室庭。 2. Civil Courts in Scotland 苏格兰的民事法庭 The Civil Courts are the sheriff court and the Court of
session. 民事法院包括郡法院和巡回法院（最高中心法院）。
3. Civil Courts in Northern Ireland 北爱尔兰的民事法院 County Court are primarily civil law courts. The
magistrates’ court also deal with certain limited classes of civil cases. The high Court of Justice
the superior civil law court. 郡法院主要是民事法院。治安法庭也审理某些有限类型的民事案件。高等法院就是高级民 事法院。 IV. The Judiciary 司法机构 There is no ministry of justice in the United Kingdom.
Central responsibility lies with the Lord Chancellor the Home Secretary and the Attorney General.
In England and Wales, lay magistrates are appointed on behalf of the Crown by the
Lord Chancellor who is advised by committees in each county. The Lord Chancellor
recommends the High Court and circuit judges. The highest judicial appointments and
made by the Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister. 英国没有司法机构。中央政府的司法工作主要由娃哈哈官内政大臣和检察总长负责。在英 格兰和威尔士，娃哈哈官根据各部委员会的建议任命外行人员为治安官。娃哈哈官推荐高 等法官和巡回法官。最高级别的司法官任命由女王根据首相的建议做出。
V. Police 警察 The police service for United Kingdom is organized and
controlled on a local basis under the Home Secretary and the Scottish and Northern Ireland
Secretaries. London’s Metropolitan Police Force is directly under the control of
Home Secretary. Police officers are not allowed to join a trade union or go on strike. They
do not normally carry firearms. 在内政大臣和苏格兰及北爱尔兰国务大臣的指导下，英国警察分地组建，并以地方管理为 基础。但伦敦警察署直接与内政大臣管辖。警察不得加入工会或罢工。他们通常不佩带手 枪。 VI. Treatment of offenders 对违法者的处理 The chief aims of the penal system are to deter the
potential lawbreaker and to reform the convicted offender. 刑罚制度的主要目的是阻止潜在的违法者，并改造已判的违法者。
Capital punishment ( a sentence of death ) for murder has
been abolished in the U.K, through proposal for its reinstatement are regularly debated
by Parliament, and it remains the penalty for treason and piracy. 英国已废除对谋杀罪的死刑，但议会仍经常辩论要恢复死刑，判国罪和海盗罪仍可判死刑 。 第九章 Social Affairs 英国社会 I. Health and Social Services 全国医疗保健计划 1. Britain is regarded as a welfare state. This system is
funded out of national insurance contributions and taxation. In Britain the term applies
mainly to the National Health Service (NHS), national insurance and social security. 英国被认为是福利制度的国家。此制度的所需资金来源于全国保险税和赋税。在英国，这 主要是指国民保健制度，国民保险和社会保障制度。
2. The National Health Service provides for every resident,
regardless of income, a full range of medical services. The service was established in
the U.K. in 1948. Over 82 per cent of the cost of the health service in Great Britain id
funded out of general taxation. The rest is met from: (1) the NHS element of National
Insurance contributions; (2) charges towards the cost of certain items such as drugs
prescribed by family doctors, and general dental treatment; (3) other receipts, including
land sales and the proceeds of income generation schemes. 不管个人收入如何，国民保健制度为每个居民提供全面医疗服务。英国于1948年确立此制 度。英国国民保健制度82%以下的费用来自普通税收，其他部分来自（1）国民保险金中的 国民保险金部分；（2）象对家庭一生开的药单和普通牙科治疗所收的费用；（3）其他收 入，包括出售土地和增收计划的收益。
3. There are proportional charges for most types of HNS
dental treatment, including examinations. Sight test are free to children. No one is
liable to be charged by the National Health Service for treatment in an accident,
emergency or for an infectious disease. Central government is directly responsible for the
NHS, which is administered by a range of local health authorities and health boards
throughout the U.. 国民保健制度中多数牙科治疗都要收取一定比例的费用，包括检查费。视力检查对儿童免 费。国民保健制度对事故，急诊或传染病的治疗不收费，中央政府直接负责国民保健制度 ，由全国各地的保健机构和卫生委员会实施
4. The family health services are those given to patients by
doctors, dentists, opticians and pharmacists. In order to obtain the benefits of the NHS
a person must normally be registered on the list of a general practitioner (GP,
sometimes knows as a “family doctor” ). 家庭保健服务由医生、牙医、眼科大夫和药剂师提供给病人。为获得国民保健制度的服务 ，人们必须在普通开业医生的名册上注册。
5. A full range of hospital services is provided by district
general hospital. There are also specialist hospital or units for children, people suffering
from mental illness, those with learning disabilities, and elderly people, and for the
treatment of specific diseases. 地区普通医院提供全面的医院服务。也有为儿童，精神病人，有学习障碍者，老人和特殊 病人开设的专门医院或病区。
6. The National Health Service is the largest single
employer of labour in the U.K. NHS has suffered from underfunding in recent decades, as a
result of which many better-off people have been turning to private medical health care. 国民保健制度是英国最大的用人机构。近几十年来，因为资金不足，许多比较富裕的人正 逐渐转向私人的医疗保健机构。
7. Personal social services in Britain assist elderly
people, disabled people, people with learning disabilities or mental illness, children, and
families facing special problems. These statutory service are provided by local government
social services authorities. 在英国，个人社会服务向老人，残疾人，有学习障碍者，精神病人，有特殊家庭困难的人 等。地方政府社会服务委员会提供法定援助。
II. social Security 社会保险 1. The social security system is designed to secure a basic
standard of living for people in financial need. Nearly a third of government expenditure
is devoted to the social security programme which provides financial help for people
who are elderly, sick, disabled, unemployed, widowed, bringing up children or on
very low incomes. 社会保险制度设立的目的是保障经济困难的人们的基本生活水平，政府开支的近三分之一 用于社会保险计划。此计划给老人，病人，残疾人，失业者，寡妇，抚育幼儿者或低收入 者提供经济帮助。 2. Administration in Great Britain is handled by separate
executive agencies of the Department of Social Security. In Northern Ireland by the
Social Security Agency. 大不列颠的社会保险由社会保险部独立执行机构管理，在北爱尔兰则是社会保险局。
3. contributory social security benefits, it include:( 1)
retirement pension; (2) unemployment pension; (3) sickness and invalidity benefit
and (4) Maternity allowance and widows’s benefits. 需要先交费的社会安全福利（个人有工作收入时交，无收入时领），其中包括：退休金， 失业金，病残福利金，孕产期补助金，寡妇补助金。
4. non-contributory social security benefits, it include:
(1) war pensions;(2) industrial injuries disablement benefit;(3) child benefit and (4)
family credit. 不需要先交费的福利金，包括战争伤亡抚恤金，工伤致残救济金，儿童补助金，低收入家 庭补助金。 III. Religion宗教
1. Everyone in Britain has the right to religious freedom
with out interference from the community or the State. He may change his religion at will
may manifest his faith in teaching, worship and observance. Except that the Lord
Chancellor may be a Roman Catholic, public offices are open without distinction to
members of all churches or none. 在英国，人人都有信仰宗教的权利，社会和政府不得干涉。他可以随意改变宗教信仰，可 以在教职，礼拜或仪式中表明他的信仰。除了娃哈哈官不可以是罗马天主教徒外，公共职 务对各种信仰或没有信仰的人一律公开。
2. Established churches 国教 There are two established church in Britain: in England the
church of England and Scotland the Church of England. 英国有两大国教，在英格兰是英格兰国教，苏格兰是苏格兰教会（长老教）。
3. Church of England is uniquely related to the Crown in
that the Sovereign must be a member of that Church and as “Defender of the Faith”. The
Church is also linked with the State through the House of loads. The church of England
is not free to change its form of worship, as laid down in the Book of Common Prayer
without the consent of Parliament. 英格兰国教与君主有独特的联系。因为君主作为“国教的捍卫者”必须是此教会的一员，他在 登基时必须承诺维持国教。国教还通过上议院与政府联系。没有议会同意，英格兰教会不 可随意改变“国教祈祷书”中规定的礼拜仪式。
4. The government of the Church of Scotland is Presbyterian,
that is, government by ministers and elders, all of whom are ordained to office.
The Monarch is normally represented at the general assembly by the Lord High
Commissioner. 英格兰教的管理时长老制，也就是由教士和长老治理。他们被授予圣职，王室高级代表通 常代表君主光临会议。 5. Unestablished churches 非国教教会 There are include: the Anglican Churches(圣公会)，the
Free Churches(自由教)，the Roman Catholic Church（罗马天主教）。
IV. Festival and Public Holidays 节假日 The Christian festival of the year and Christmas, Easter,
and Whit Sunday. 其主要的节日有圣诞节，复活节，圣灵降临节
第十章 Sports 体育运动 1. Many international sports were introduced by the British
who take their leisure time very seriously. There is widespread participation in sport
in Britain. 许多国际体育项目是由认真对待休闲时间的英国人引进的，在英国，人们广泛参与体育。
2. Football ( or “soccer” as it is colloquially called ),
the most popular sport in England as well as in Europe, has its traditional home in England where
it was developed in the 19th century. 足球（口语叫”soccer”）,在英格兰和欧洲是最受欢迎的运动，其传统老家在英格兰，出现 于19世纪。 3. The game “Rugby” was invented at Rugby School in Warwich
shire in the early 19th century. 拉格比球比赛19世纪初创立于沃尔威克郡的拉格比学校，因此而得名。 4. Cricket, the most typically English of sports, has been
in existence since the 16th century. On an international level, 5-day Cornhill Test
Matches. 板球，是英国人最典型的体育运动，自从16世纪以来已存在。国际比赛是5天的康希尔决赛 。 5. Although tennis has been played for centuries, the modern
game originated in England in late 19th. The main tournament is the annual
Wimbledon fortnight, one of the 4 tennis “Grand Slam” tournaments. 尽管网球已打了好几个世纪，但现代比赛却起源于19世纪末的英格兰。主要比赛是一年一 度的温布尔登两周赛，这是四大满贯网球锦标赛之一。
6. There is a considerable following and participation of
athletics in Britain. For example, the London Marathon, which takes place every spring. 英国参加田径的人很多，例如伦敦的马拉松塞，每年春季举行。
7. The home of golf is Scotland where the game has been
played since the 17th century and naturally the oldest golf club in the world is there:
The Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers. The Walker Cup for amateurs and the Ryder
Cup for professionals. 高尔夫球的故里是苏格兰，自从17世纪以来这项运动就在那儿盛行。全世界最古老的高尔 夫俱乐部也在那里：爱丁堡高尔夫球会员荣誉公司。业余球员参加沃尔克公开赛，职业球 员参加雷德尔杯。 英国部分结束 美国部分开始 chapter 13 geography 地理位置
1.Alaska and Hawaii are the two newest states in
American.Alaska northwestern Canada,and Hawaii lies in the central Pacific. 阿拉斯加和夏威夷是最近加入美国的两个新州。阿拉斯加在加拿大的西北部，夏威夷位邻 中太平洋。（本细节还有考“一句话简答”的可能） 2.The U.S has a land area of 9.3 million square
kilometres.It is the fourth largest country in the world in size after Russia,Canada and China. 就面积而言，美国是世界第四大国，就人口而言，美国是世界是第三大国。 3.Of all states of American,Alaska is the lagest in area and
Rhode Island the smallest.But on the mainland Texas is the largest sate of
the country. 所有州中，阿拉斯加是面积最大的州，罗得岛最小，在美国大陆，最大的州是得克萨斯州 。 4.The Rockies,the backbone of the North American
Continent,is also known as the Continental Divide. 落基山脉是北美大陆的脊梁，也被成为大陆分水岭。 5.The two main mountain ranges in American are the
Appalachian mountains and the Rocky mountains. The Appalachians run slightly from the
northeast to southwest and the Rocky mountains run slightly from the northwest to
southeast. 阿巴拉契亚山脉和落基山脉是美国的两座大山脉。（本细节有考“一句话简答题”的可能） 6.The Mississippi River is the largest river in
American,over 6000 kilometers.The Mississippi has been called "father of waters"or
"old man river" 密西西比河是美国最长河流，有被称作“众水之父”或“老人河”。 7.The Ohio river has been called the American Ruhr,As in
Germany, the area along the river is rich in valuable deposits of high-grade coking coal
and is well known for its steel industry.The river provides cheap water transportation for
raw materials. 俄亥俄河被称作美国的鲁尔河，就像德国一样，沿河有丰富的高品千周的焦煤，并且因其 钢铁而著名。另外，该河还为原材料提供了廉价的水路运输。 8.On the Pacific side there are two great rivers:the
Colorado in the south and the Columbia ,which rises in Canada. 太平洋沿岸有两大河：科罗拉多河及哥伦比亚河。 9。The Rio
Grande River forms a natural boundary between Mexico and the United States. 格兰德河是美国和墨西哥之间的开然界河（本细节考选择和简答可能性大） 10.the most important lakes in the United States are the
Great Lakes. They are Lake Superior,which is the largest fresh water lake in the world,
Lake Michigan ,the only entirely in the U.S.,Lake Huron,Lake Eire and Lake
Ontario.They are located between Canada and the United States except Lake Michigan. 美国最重要的湖泊是五大湖：苏必利尔湖，密歇根湖，休伦湖，伊利湖和安大略湖，其中 ，苏必利尔湖为世界最大淡水湖，密歇根湖完全是美国境地内。
11。美国气候概述 1) A humid continental climate(湿润的大陆性气候） is found in the north-eastern part of the country. 2) In the south-eastern United States you can find a humid
subtropical climate.(湿润的亚 热带气候---东南部） 3）The Pacific
northwest is favored with a maritime climate海洋性气候--太平洋西北岸） 4）The southern
part of the Pacific coast in California（加州太平洋沿岸南部）
has a Mediterranean climate (地中海式气候)with
warm,dry summers and moist winters. 12.Many factors besides latitude influence the climate in
the United States.Perhaps the most important forces are the Atlantic and Pacific
oceans,the Gulf of Mexick ,and the Great Lakes. 影响美国气候的最主要的因素为：太平洋，和大西泮，墨西哥湾，五大湖。
13.Traditionally from the east to the west the United States
can be divided into seven geographical regions.美国从东到西可分为七个地理区。
14.New English is made up of six states of the Northeast
.Becaust of its stony soil it is not noted for its agriculture .Dairying is the most inportant
farm activity,New English is also well-known for its position in education,Many famous
universities and colleges such as Yale,Harvard,thd Massachusetts Institute of Technology(MIT)
are located here. 新英格兰由美国东北部六个州组成，由于土壤多石，不利于农业生产，乳制品业是最重要 的农业活动，许多重点大学如耶鲁大学，哈佛大学和麻省理工学院都坐落于此。
15。New
Englanders were originally knows as Yankees,which came to stand for alll American.新英格兰人最初曾被称作“美国佬：这一名称，后来渐渐指所有的美国人。（选 择） 16。The Middle
Atlantic States have about one fifth of the total population of the united states.大西洋中部各州的人口占美国总人口的1/5。 17.The soil is rich,the rain usually pientiful and the
growing season long,These factors make the Midwest America's most important agricultural area
.It is also a major manufacturing region and the nation's leading center of
heavy industry. 中西部地区是美国最重要的农业区，也是主要的制造业区各最主要的重工业区。
18.Chicago,the largest and busiest port on the Great Lakes,
is the largest industral and commercial center of the area.芝加哥是五大湖最大最忙的港口，也是该地区最大的工商业 中心。 19.Detroit is known as the automobile capital of the
world.Omaha is known as the agricultural capital of the United states.底特律被称作“汽车之都，奥马哈被称作农业之都 。 20.Dry farming ,irrigation farming,and the cattle and sheep
herding are the main cativities of the Great Plains of the American West. 旱地农业，灌溉农业和牛羊牧业是美国西部大平原地区的主要活动。
21.Colorado has been called the steel city of the west
,Denver is the largest city of the Great Plains.科罗拉多市被称作“西部钢城”，丹佛市是大平原地区最大的城市。
22。the largest
groups of Native Americans are found on the Colorado Plateau. 美国最大的土著群落位于科罗拉多高原。
23.Mmauna Loa,the world's largest volcano,is located on
Haiwaii and erupts from time to time,Suger cane and pineapples anr Haiwaii's main
crops.Tourism is Haiwaii's most important industry.莫纳洛阿火山是世界最大和活火山，甘蔗和菠罗是夏威夷的两大作物， 旅游业是夏威夷最重要的产业。
24。Honolulu is
the capital of Haiwaii and Juneau is the capital of Alaska. 火奴鲁鲁是夏威夷的首府，朱诺是阿拉斯加的首府。 英美国家文化背景
Education in Britain and The US 赵宝斌 注释 In Britain all children have to go to school between the
ages of 5 and 16. In the US children must go to school from the age of 6 to between the
ages of 14 and 16, depending on the state they live in. Subject In England and Wales the subjects taught in schools are laid
down by the National Curriculum(课程),
which was introduced in 1988 and sets out(制定)
in detail the subjects that children should study and the levels of achievement
they should reach by the ages of 7, 11, 14 and 16, when they are tested. The National
Curriculum does not apply in Scotland, where each school decides what subjects it will
teach. In the US the subjects taught are decided by national and
local governments. Whereas British schools usually have prayers(祈祷) and religious(宗教的)
instruction, American schools are not allowed to include prayers or to teach
particular religious beliefs(信仰). Examinations At 16 students in England and Wales take GCSE examinations.
These examinations are taken by students of all levels of ability in any of a range
of subjects and may involve a final examination, an assessment(评价) of work done during the two year course, or both of these things. At 18 some students taken A-level
examinations, usually in not more than 3 subjects. It is necessary to have A-levels in order
to go to a university or polytechnic(综合技术大学). In Scotland students take the SCE examinations. A year
later, they can take examinations called HIGHS, after which they can either go straight
to a university or spend a further year at school and take the Certificate(证书) of Sixth Year Studies. In Scotland the university system is different to that in
England and Wales. Courses usually last four years rather than three and students study a
larger number of subjects as part of their degree. In the US school examinations are not as important as they
are in Britain. Students in High Schools do have exams at the end of their last two
years, but these final exams are considered along with the work that the students have done
during the school years. Social Events and Ceremonies(仪式) In American high schools there is a formal ceremony for
Graduation (=completion of high school). Students wear a special cap and gown and receive a
diploma(文凭) from the head of the school. Students often buy a class ring to ear,
and a yearbook, containing pictures of their friends and teachers. There are also
special social events at American schools. Sports events are popular, and cheer leaders lead
the school in supporting the school team and singing the school song. At the end of their
junior year, at age 17 or 18, students held in the evening. The girls wear long
evening dresses and the boys wear TUXEDOS. In Britain, there are no formal dances or social occasions(场合) associated(和...有关) with school life. Some schools have SPEECH DAY at the end of
the school year when prizes are given to the best students and speeches are made
by the head teacher and sometimes an invited guest. However, in many British schools
students and teachers organize(组织) informal
dances for the older students. Government in Britain and the US 赵宝斌 注释 Government in Britain National government The center of government in Britain is PARLIAMENT(国会), which makes all the important laws for the country about crimes and punishment,
taxation(犯罪), etc. Parliament is made up of the House of Commons, the House of
Lords and the monarch( 贵族). The
Houses of Parliament are in Westminster in London and sometimes “Westminster”
itself is used to mean Parliament. The House of commons (or the Commons) is the lower but more
powerful of the two Houses. It has 650 elected members, called Members of
Parliament or MPs, each representing people in a particular area or constituency.
The House of Lords (the Lords) is the higher but less powerful of the two Houses. It has
over 1,000 members, none of whom is elected. These members include: people who have
titles like Lord or Viscount( 子爵) which
have been passed down to them on the death of their father (hereditary peers(世袭贵族));
people who are given titles as a reward for their long service in public life, but whose children do not INHERIT(继承) their title (life peers); and some important leaders of the Church of England (Archbishops(大主教) and Bishops(主教)). The government brings BILL (=suggested laws) to the House of
Commons, which are discussed by MPs. The bills then go to the House of Lords to
be discussed. The House of Lords can suggest changes to a bill, but does not have
the power to reject it (=refuse permission for it to be passed). When bills come back to the
Commons, MPs vote on them and if they are passed they are signed by the monarch
and become Acts of Parliament At present England, Scotland, Wales, and N Ireland are all
governed by Parliament in Westminster. In N Ireland the political parties are
different but their MPs still go to the House of Commons. In Scotland there is a lot of discussion
about whether Scotland should have some separate or partly separate form of
government. The same is true in Wales Local government Local government is Britain, also known as Councils, can
make small laws (bylaws) which only apply in their area, but these are usually about small,
local matters. For instance, they may be about fines that will be made for people who
park in certain streets. Councils are paid for by local taxes and also by an amount
of money given to them each year by the national government. Their main job is the
organizing and providing of local services, e.g. hospitals, school, libraries, public
transport, street-cleaning, etc. They are also responsible for setting the amount of local tax that
people must pay and for collecting this tax. Local councils(议会)
are elected by people within each town, city, or country area. The people who are elected, known as councilors, usually
represent one of the national political parties, but are often elected because of their
policies on local issues(问题) rather than the national policies of their party. Government in the US All levels of government in the US (federal(联邦), state, and local) are
elected by the people of the country. Federal government The constitution of the US specifically limits the power of
the federal (=national) government mainly to defence(国防), foreign affairs, printing money, controlling
trade and relations between the states, and protecting human
rights. The federal government is make up of the CONGRESS(国会), the President, and the Supreme Count(最高法院). Congress Congress, the central law-making body in the US, is made up
of the House of Representatives and the Senate. The House of Representatives
is the lower but more important of the two houses of Congress. It has 435 members,
called Representatives or Congressmen/Congresswomen elected by their state. The member
of Representative(代 表) for each
state depends on the size of the population of the state, with each state having at least one Representative. The Senate is the higher
but less powerful of the two houses of Congress. It has 100 members, called Senators(参议院), elected by their state. Each state has two Senators. Congress decides whether a BILL (suggested law) becomes law.
If the Senate and the House of Representative both agree to a bill, the President
is asked to agree. The President can veto(=say no to) the bill(议案), but Congress can still
make it a law if 2/3 of the members of each house agree to it. State government State government has the greatest influence in people’s
daily lives. Each state has its own written Constitution(宪法)
(set of fixed law), and among the state there are sometimes great differences in law on matters such as
property, crime, health, and education. The highest elected official of each state is the
Governor. Each state also has one or two elected lawmaking bodies (state Legislature)
whose members represent the various parts of the state. Local government Local government concerns laws made at the town, city or
county level. These laws are usually limited to a small area and concern such thing as
traffic, where and when alcoholic drinks can be sold, or keeping animals. The
highest elected official of a town or city Council. Every law at every level of government must be in agreement
with(一致) the United States constitution. Any citizen who thinks he or she has
not been given their rights under the law may argue their case through all the courts up
to the Supreme Court (the final Court of Appeal in the US) if necessary, and any law
which is found not in agreement with the constitution (unconstitutional) cannot be
kept in force. Newspapers in Britain and the US 赵宝斌 注释 Newspapers in Britain National and local papers In Britain there are 11 national daily newspapers and most
people read one of them every day. There are two kinds of newspaper. One is large in
size and has many detailed articles about national and international events.
These newspapers are called the serious papers or the quality papers. The other kind,
called the tabloids is smaller in size, have more pictures, often in colour, and shorter
articles, often about less important events or about the private lives of well-know people.
Although some people disapprove( 反对) of the
tabloids(小报), more people buy them than
buy the serious newspaper. The Sun, for example, which is a tabloid, is the biggest-selling
newspaper in Britain. People who disapprove of the tabloids very strongly sometimes call
them the Gutter Press. There are daily or weekly newspapers in all parts of Britain
which cover local news as well as some national and international stories. Local
papers give information about films, concerts, and other things that are happening in the
local neighborhood, including, for example, information about local people who have been
married or died recently. National papers generally give information about film,
concerts and other events happening in London, In Scotland, many people read the
Glasgow Herald or the Scotsman and there are Scottish Editions of the tabloids. There also many free local newspapers which are delivered to
people’s homes whether they ask for them or not. These contain a lot of
advertisements(广告) and also
some news. Politics Most national newspapers in Britain express a political
opinion and people choose the newspaper that they read according to their own political
beliefs. Most of the newspapers are right-wing. These are the Daily
Telegraph(serious newspaper), the Daily express, Daily Mail, Daily Star, the Sun and Today(all
tabloids). Of the other serious newspapers, The Times, the oldest newspaper in
Britain, did not formerly have one strong political view but it is now more right-wing. The
Guardian is slightly left-wing, the Independent is centre and the Financial(金融) with political issues, but
reports on business and financial news. The Daily Mirror(tabloid) is
left-wing. Daily and Sunday newspapers Daily newspapers are published on every day of the week except
Sunday. Sunday newspapers are larger than daily newspapers, often having 2
or 3 sections. There is also other a magazine, called the colour supplement(增刊). All the Sunday newspapers are national Serious newspapers include the Observer(which
is slightly left-wing), the Sunday Times, the Sunday Telegraph and the Independent on
Sunday, the Sunday Mirror, the Sunday Express, the News of the World and the
Sunday Sport which is considered to lack much serious information. Newspapers in The US National and local newspapers There are more than 1500 daily newspapers in the US. Each
one is usually sold only in one part of the country, e.g. in a city, but they cover
national and international news. In larger cities there is often more than one newspaper and the
different ones express different political opinions. Some newspapers are sold in
nearly all parts of the US. E.g. USA today and the National edition of the New York Times.
Two other newspapers, the Los Angeles Times and the Washington Post are know and
respected all over the US but cannot be bought everywhere. Other important newspapers
are: the Boston Globe, sold in New England, the Chicago Tribune, sold in the
Midwest, the Christian Science Monitor and USA Today, both sold nationally, and the
Washington Post on the East Coast. There are also weekly newspapers in all parts of the US
which cover local news, such as what is happening in the local neighborhood(地方). Fewer people read these
than read the daily newspapers. Daily and Sunday newspapers Daily newspapers are published on every day of the week
except Sunday. Sunday newspapers are very big, often having several separate
parts. They contain many longer articles and a lot of advertisements. Each section
deals with a different subject. E.g. national and international news, sport, travel, etc.
One section, the classifieds(分类 广告) has
advertisements for jobs and things for sale. Another section is called the funnies. There is often also a magazine which is in color. Alternative newspapers In the 1960s a group of newspapers began to appear that were
later called in “alternative
press”. They expressed extreme(极端的) political opinions,
especially left-wing opinion. Many of the newspapers which were part of
this movement, such as the Village Voice in New York or the Reader in Chicago, are
less extreme today and more widely read. Law in Britain and the US 赵宝斌 注释 In both Britain and the US, when a person is accused of a
rime it must be shown that they are guilty "beyond reasonable doubt". A
person is always innocent(无罪) in the eyes of the law until they have been proved to be guilty by
a court they can sometimes ask for permission to APPEAL(上诉) to a higher court in the hope that it will change
this decision. Criminal law in England and Wales When someone is arrested (ARREST) by the police, a
MAGISTRATE (=an official who judges cases in some types of courts) decides whether there
is enough EVIDENCE(证据 ) against the person for the case to go to court. If there
is enough evidence and the case is a serious one, the person accused(控告) of the crime (called 'the accused(被告)') is sent
to a CROWN COURT for a TRIAL with a JUDGE and JURY (=12 members of the public who have to decide if the accused is
guilty(有罪的), then the judge decides the SENTENCE(判决) (2) (=punishment). If there is enough evidence against the accused but the crime is not a serious one (for
example a traffic offence) then the case is heard in a MAGISTRATES COURT. If found guilty in the Crown Court the accused may apply to(请求) the COURT OF APPEAL (Criminal Division) where he or she will be heard by
a judge. Sometimes a HIGH COURT judge from the Queen's Bench Division assists in
dealing with criminal matters in the Court of Appeal or Crown Court. Criminal law in Northern Ireland In Northern Ireland, as in England and Wales, someone
accused of a crime may be tried in a Magistrates' Court or a Crown Court depending on how
serious the crime is. Appeals from the Crown Court are heard in the Northern
Ireland Court of Appeal. Criminal law in Scotland Scotland has a separate court system. After a person is
arrested by the police, an official called the PROCURATOR FISCAL is in charge of
deciding whether there is enough evidence against the accused for a trial. If there is
enough evidence and the crime is a very serious one, the accused is sent to the HIGH
COURT OF JUSTICIARY where there is a judge and jury(陪审团) (in Scotland there are 15 people on a jury). If there is enough evidence but the crime is a less serious
one, the case is heard in a SHERIFF COURT (The sheriff is a trained lawyer who acts as a
judge). Appeals from the Sheriff Court go to the High Court of Justiciary. Criminal law in the US The US has tow separate court systems. In general terms
STATE COURTS are used when someone has done something against the laws of
CONSTITUTION of a particular State. FEDERAL COURTS deal with cases to do with the laws
and Constitution of the United States as whole. Federal courts also hear cases where
the US Government is one of the sides involved(介入).
Cases for crimes which are not serious are likely to be heard in state courts. Serious crimes may be tried in wither
state courts of federal courts depending on the situation, for example cases where a crime
has taken place in another state are often heard in federal courts. After a person has been arrested a magistrate(地方官员), or in some cases a GRAND
JURY made up of between 16 and 23 citizens, decides whether
they should go to trial. If there is enough evidence for a trial the accused goes to
court and has to state whether he/she is guilty or not guilty of the crime. If they say
they are not guilty they are sent to trial with a judge and jury (of 16 or 20 citizens) in either
a State or COUNTY COURT or, in federal cases, a DISTRICT COURT. If the accused is found
guilty they may have the fight to appeal to a higher court, as shown below. The final court of appeal in the US federal system and for
some cases in the state courts is the US SUPREME COURT. It is made up of a CHIEF JUSTICE
and eight ASSOCIATES. The accused does not have the fight to be heard by the
Supremes Court, but the Supreme Court decides which cases it will hear. Holiday in Britain and the US 赵宝斌 注释 Paid Holiday People in the US get 2 weeks a year paid vacation (holiday)
form their job. Most British people have four or five weeks paid holiday a year.
Americans often complain that tow weeks is not enough holiday, especially when they hear about
the longer holidays that Europeans get. In addition, there are 8 days in each
country, which are public holidays (the British call Bank Holiday) and many of these fall on a
Monday giving people a long weekend. In Britain, so many people drive to another part of
the country, especially the coast, on Bank Holiday weekends that there are serious
traffic jams, which may stretch( 长达) for many
miles. Popular Holiday Places With the US, outdoor vacations are popular, for example at
the Grand Canyon or Yosemite or Yellowstone or the national parks or forests.
Yong people may go walking or camping in the mountains. Many people have capers or small
trailer(拖车) in which to travel, or if they are in a car, they may stay at Motels on
the journey Disneyland and Disneyworld are also popular and people can to skiing in the
Rocky Mountains of Colorado, Wyoming and Montana. It is also very common to use vacations to visit relatives
who may live in states a long distance away. Some children go to summer camp for a holiday
during the summer vacation form school, where they do special activities, such
as sports or crafts. When Americans want a holiday for sun and rest, they usually
go to Florida, Hawaii, Mexico or the Caribbean. They may go to Europe for culture,
for example, to see art, plays, and places of historic interest. In Britain, many people like to go to the seaside for
holidays. There are places near the sea, such as Blackpool, Scarborough and Bournemouth, where
there is plenty to do even if it rains. In a traditional British seaside holiday,
the children can watch a Punch and Judy Show, eat candy floss and rock (=sweet) and make
sandcastles, while older people can hire a deckchair to sit on the beach. People also
like to go to go the country, especially to walk, in places like Scotland, Wales and the
Lake District. When the British go abroad they usually want to go somewhere
warm. Spain and 'Spanish islands of Majorca and Ibiza are popular as are
other places in southern Europe. For skiing, people often go to the Alps. Medicine in Britain and American 赵宝斌 注释 Medicine in Britain In Britain there is a National Health Service (NHS) which is
paid for by taxes and National Insurance(保险), and in
general people do not have to pay for medical treatment. Every person is registered with a doctor in their local area, know
as general practitioner or GP. This means that their name is on the GP's list, and they may
make an appointment to see the doctor or may call the doctor out to visit them if
they are ill. People do sometimes have to pay part of the cost of drugs that the doctor
prescribes(开处方). GPs are trained in general medicine but are not specialists in any
particular subject. If a patient needs to see a specialist doctor, they must first go to their GP and
then the GP will make an appointment(预约)
for the patient to see a specialist at a hospital or clinic. Although everyone in Britain can have free treatment under
the National Health Service. It is also possible to have treatment done privately, for
which one has to pay, Some people have private health insurance to help them pay for
private treatment. Under the NHS, people who need to go to hospital may have to wait for
a long time on a waiting list for their treatment. If they pay for the treatment, they
will probably get it quickly. Anyone who is very ill can call an ambulance(救护车) and get taken to hospital
for free urgent medical treatment. Ambulances are a free service in
Britain. Medicine in the US Unlike Britain, the US does not have a national health care
service. The government does help pay for some medical care for people who are on
low incomes and for old, but most people buy insurance to help pay for medical care. Some
people cannot afford insurance but not poor enough to get government help. The
cost of medical insurance and the problems of those who can not afford it are an
important political subject. When people are ill, they usually go first to a general
practitioner or internist. Unlike in Britain, however, people sometimes go straight to a
specialist, without seeing their general practitioner first. Children are usually taken to a
pediatrician (a doctor who is a specialist in the treatment of children). As in Britain, if a
patient needs to see a specialist doctor, their general doctor will usually give them the name
of one. Doctors don not go to people's homes when they are ill.
People always make appointments to see the doctor in the doctor's office. In
emergencies(急诊), people call for an ambulance. Hospital must treat all emergency
patients, even if the patient does not have medical insurance. The government would then help
pay for some of the cost of the medical care. Social Class in Britain 赵宝斌 注释 British society is considered to be divided into three main
groups of classes - the Upper Class, the Middle Class, and the Lower or Working Class.
This is known as the Class system and it is important to know something about it if you
want to understand British people and society. Most British people grow up with a deep
knowledge and understanding of the class system even if they are not very
conscious(意识到) of it. Most people know which class they belong to by the way they
speak, their clothes, their interests or even the type of food they eat. Social class is not only about behavior and attitudes, For
example, although many upper class people are rich and may own a lot of land, having a
lot of money does not make a person upper class. It is also important to come from a
particular kind of family, have friends who are considered suitable, have been to a certain
type of private school and speak with the right kind of accent. There are people who
are poor but who do not think of themselves as working class because their family
background, education, political opinions, etc. are different to those of most working-class
people. Many people do not like the class system but it is impossible to pretend that
these differences do not exist or that British people do not sometimes form opinions in this
way. Pubs in Britain 赵宝斌 注释 Pubs are an important part of British life. Even very small
villages nearly always have a pub. People especially men, will often go to the pub for a
drink in the evening and at weekends. A man will usually go to the same pub, one which
is closed by and which is called the local: I'm just nipping down to the local for a
print. Women now go to pubs more than they used to, but usually don not like to go to a
pub on their own. Children under 16 are not usually allowed into pubs, although some
pubs have a children's room or a garden where children can sit. Until 1988, pubs were only allowed to be open from 12:00 am
to 2:00 pm alcoholic drink can be sold in a public place are called the licensing laws.
Even though the law was changed so that alcohol can now be sold all day, many pubs
still only pen at lunchtime and in the evening. When it is nearly time for the pub to
close, the landlord or landlady shouts "last orders" and then "time". Pubs often sell food or snacks as well as drinks. Food that
is considered typical pub food is scampi (kind of shellfish) and chips (fried
potatoes), pie and chips, chicken and chips, and ploughman's lunch (bread with cheese). Pubs have names, e.g. The Angel, The Black Swan, The Crown,
The King's Arms, The Red Lion, The White Horse, etc. and people usually refer to
the pub by its name: Turn left at the Rose and Crown. There is often a sing outside
the pub showing the name with a picture. Many pubs have two or more different bars. The public bar is
usually plainly furnished and often has a pool table and dartboard. It is the bar
usually used by the local people. The saloon bar is comfortable and well-furnished(装修很好的) and is the bar that is usually used by men and woman drinking together. Sports in Britain and the US 赵宝斌 注释 Football in Britain and America Football(soccer AmE) is a very popular sport in Britain,
played between August and May (the football season) Many people, esp. men, support a
particular team and may go to watch the games that their team plays. Professional football
is controlled by two organizations, the Football League and the Football
Association (the FA). In England and Wales, there 93 teams in the League, organized into four
divisions(区）. In Scotland, there are 38 teams in the League, organized into
three divisions. Teams play regularly against the other teams in their league or
division according to a fixed programme. At the end of the season the team in the Premier
League (or the Premier Division in Scotland) with the most points is the League
Champion. This competition is called the League Championship. The other important competition is the FA Cup, often just
called the cup.This is open to all armature football teams that belong to the FA as well as
the 93 professional（专业） teams. The teams play against each other in a Knockout
competition which starts in August and ends in May. The two teams left in the
competition play in the FA Cup Final at Wembley Stadium in London. This is a very important
national sporting occasion, watched by millions of people in television. Team names usu. include the name of the town or city where
the team is based, e.g. Leeds United, Sheffield Wednesday, Wolverhamptom Wanderers
(Wolves), Dundee United, etc. Football(American football BrE) is a very popular sport in
the US. Many people, esp. men, support a particular team and watch the game that their
team plays. Each team has a name, which usually includes the name of the town or
city that the team is associated with, Some examples of names are: New York Jets,
Washington Redskins, New England Patriots, and Green Bay Packers. The season starts in early autumn and ends at the end of
January with the Super Bowl, which is the NFL championship game. The two teams that play
in the Super Bowl are determined by games within the divisions and conferences.
The Super Bowl is only one game and at the end of the game, they have a sudden-death
play-off, in which the first team to gain points wins the game. Professional football
games are organized in the US in the following way: National Football League are divided
into two conferences: One is National Football Conference（国家足协） and the other is American Football Conference. Both of them have 14 teams and three divisions. Basket Ball and Base Ball in The U.S Basketball is a very popular sport in the US. Many people,
esp., men support a particular team and watch the games that their team plays. Each team has a name, which usually includes the name of the
town or city that the team is associated （有关）with.
Some examples of names are: Boston Cetics, Chicago Bulls, Denver Nuggets, and Los Angeles Lakers. The plying season runs from autumn to late spring. Teams with
each division play against each other, and against teams from the other
divisions within the conferences. The best teams from each other (the NBA Championship). The
first team to win four of these games is the NBA champion. Professional basketball
games are organized in the US in the following way: National Basketball Association
(NBA) has two conferences, Eastern conference and Western conference. The Eastern
conference has two divisions, Atlantic division with 6 teams and Central
division with 7 teams and Western conference has two divisions, Midwest division with 7 teams
and Pacific division with 7 teams. Baseball is a very popular sport in the US where it is often
called the National pastime（ 消遣）. Many
people, esp., men support a particular team and watch the games that their team plays. Each team has a name, which usually includes the name of the
town or city that the team is associated with. Some examples of names are: Boston Red
Sox, Minnesota Twins, Chicago Cubs, and Houston Astros. The two leagues together are know as the major leagues. The
plying season runs from late spring to October. The winning team in each league is
called the pennant champion. In October, the two pennant champions play against each
other in seven games call the world series. The team that wins four games is the champion.
Professional baseball games are organized in the US in the following way. There are two leagues, National League
with 12 teams and American League with 14 teams. National League has Eastern
division and Western division and American League also has Eastern division and
Western division. Cricket（板球） and
Rugby（橄榄球） in Britain Cricket is a very popular sport in Britain, played mainly in
the summer. Professional cricket is controlled by the MCC(the Marylebone Cricket
Club). The main competition is the county championship, in which the 18 county cricket
clubs play against one another during the season. Each match takes 3-4 days to complete. The other form of cricket is called Limited overs (or
one-day) cricket. in which matches are completed in a day. There is a limited-overs
championship, played on Sundays. There are also two knockout competitions（淘汰赛）, the finals（决赛）
of which are played at the Lord's Cricket ground in London. International matches are called test matches( or tests) and
can takes 5 days to complete. They are played between the following teams:
Australia, England, India, New Zealand, Pakistan, South African, Sri Lanka, and the West
Indies. When England and Australia play test matches against one another, they are
said to be playing for the ashes. Many people consider cricket to be England's national game
and to be typical of a style of behavior thought to be very English which includes above
all a sense of honor and fairness. It is traditionally played by men and boys and
although there are some women's teams, including a national one, the most important
cricket club in England (the MCC) voted in 1991 not to accept women members. There are two forms of rugby football played in Britain,
rugby union and rugby league. rugby union is played by amateurs （业余爱好者）(they are not paid). There are 15 players on each team. Rugby union is played internationally
between many countries including Australia, Fiji, France, south Africa, Argentina,
England, Ireland, Wales, Scotland, and New Zealand. In Britain it is played
especially in public schools. Rugby league is a professional game, played mainly in
England and Australia). There are 13 players on each team, and the rules are slightly
different from rugby union. It is thought to be a rough, hard game. From Dictionary of English Language and Culture published by
Longman Why American Culture is Unique Zhao Baobin （赵宝斌） American culture is unique because it is nurtured, formed
and developed under certain conditions, which are characteristically(特性)American. The major factors contributing to the making of this new nation and the forming of a new
culture are the hard environment, ethnic diversity(多民族) and plural religion, which is quite different
from other nations in the world. What is more, these elements are
still influencing the American culture. 1. Rough Environment The early immigrants who were English Puritans settled down
in northeast part of American. The environment there was very rough but they
believed the poor land could purify their mind so they chose the place along the coast.
From 1607 to 1892, frontiers were pushed further west. The American frontier consisted of
the relatively unsettled regions of the United States, usually found in the western
part of the country. The frontiersmen looked for a land of rich resources and a land
of promise, opportunity and freedom. Actually they looked for a better life. So
individualism, self-reliance, and equality of opportunity have perhaps been the values most
closely associated with the frontier heritage(遗产)
of American. 2. Ethnic Diversity The population of the United States includes a large variety
of ethnic groups coming from many races, nationalities, and religions. People refer
to the United States as "melting pot "and the dominant people are British.
American is made up of WASP+MM, that is, White, Anglo Saxon, Protestants plus Middle Class
and Male. In history, people from different countries in the world rushed to American
three times. They brought their own culture to American and later on different cultures were
mixed together. Thus the unique American culture is formed, a common cultural life
with commonly shared values. 3. Plural religion The fundamental American belief in individual freedom and
the right of individuals to practice their own religion is at the center of religious
experience in the United States. The great diversity of ethnic backgrounds has produced
religious pluralism; almost all of the religions of the world are now practiced in the United
States. Christianity(基督教) is the dominant religion in American and Protestant (新教)is predominate(主导). Any individuals are equal before God and they believe they can
communicate directly to God so they can share the same idea. Under the protestant, many
new ones are formed and different explanations produce different sect of religion.
Churches are independent and American religion is no longer religion seculars. The
institution permits the practice of religion and the political power is separate form religion.
So there are more religions in American than in other countries. 4. Current influence: Nowadays, we can see the continual influence of the three
elements in the current American society. American family is typically parents and
their unmarried children. Middle-aged and elderly people generally do not live with
their married children. Many Americans live in mobile homes whose homes are built with
wheels. They can be moved. The people in American have a very strong desire to start a
new life in a new place. Quite a number of people change residences(住所) every year. The average American moves fourteen times in his lifetime. The courage to try
something new has been an American characteristic. American democracy means majority
rule, but it also means protection of minority rights. There are certain freedom
which the United States promises to all its citizens and members of minority group cannot be
denied these rights by a vote of the majority. Americans also like to be involved in many
challenge activities and sports to show their adventurous spirits. All of these are affected
by the heritage of the American history. From the facts above, we can see American culture is unique
which was cultivated, formed and developed by the main three factors, rough
environment, ethnic diversity and plural religion and still is affected and determined by
them now. Common Holidays in America and Britain 赵宝斌 编辑 A = American B = British Month Date Holidays Jan 1 New Year Day (A
B) 17 Martin Luther
King JR.'s Birthday(A) Feb 12 Lincoln's
Birthday (A) 14 Valentine's Day
(A, B) 21 President's Day
(A) 22 Washington's
Day (A) Mar 1 St. David's Day
(B) 7 Ash Wednesday
(A, B) 14 Mother's Day
(B) 17 St. Patrick's
Day (A, B) Apr 1 April Fools'
Day (A, B) 7 Orthodox Holy
Friday(A) 15 Palm Sunday (A,
B) 20 Passover (A, B)
13 Good Friday (A,
B) 22 Secretary
Day(A) 23 Earth Day(A) 23 Easter Sunday
(A, B) 24 Easter Monday
(B) 23 St. George's
Day (B) May 1 May Day (B) 6 Nurses' Day(A) 3 Bank Holiday
(B) 13 Mother's Day
(A) 15 Armed Forces
Day (A) 28 Memorial Day
(A) Jun 10 The Queen's
Official Birthday 14 Flag Day(A) 17 Father's Day
(A, B) Jul 4 Independence
Day (A) Aug 1 Friendship
Day(A) Sep 3 Labour Day (A) 1 Grandparents
Day(A) 17 Citizenship
Day(A) 30 Rosh Hashanah
(A) 27 Yom Kippur (A) Oct 10 National
Children's Day(A) 11 Columbus Day
(A) 16 National Boss
Day(A) Sweetest Day(A) 24 United Nations
Day(A) 31 Halloween (A,
B) Nov 5 Guy Fawkes
Day(B) 6 Election
Day(A) 11 Veteran's Day
(A) 11 Remembrance
Sunday (B) 22 Thanks Giving
Day (A) 30 St. Andrew's
Day (B) Dec 4 Hanukkah
(A) 25 Christmas Day
(A, B) 26 Boxing Day(B) 英国政治制度
： 热 英国实行君主立宪制，君主为国家元首，行政机关由首相领导。
国家元首 女王伊丽莎白二世，1926年4月21日出生，1952年2月6日即位，1953年6月2日加冕 。 议会 最高司法和立法机构，由国王、上院和下院组成。目前，上院共有议员699名，议长欧 文勋爵，主要由王室成员、新封终身贵族、少量世袭贵族、司法贵族及教会领袖组成，不 经选举产生。下院由普选产生，任期5年。本届下院于2001年5月选出，截至目前，在659 个议席中，工党占413席、保守党166席、自民党52席、其他小党28席。下议院议长为迈克 尔。马丁。 政府 现政府为工党政府，于1997年5月1日执政。2001年6月7日，工党再次获得大选胜利 ，并继续执政。主要成员为：首相、首席财政大臣兼文官部大臣托尼。布莱尔，副首相普 雷斯科特，内政大臣布兰科特，环境、交通及地区事务大臣斯蒂文。拜尔斯，财政大臣戈 登。布朗，外交大臣杰克。斯特劳，上院议长兼大法官欧文勋爵，贸工大臣帕特丽夏。休 伊特，国防大臣杰弗里。胡恩等。 政治制度 英国有着悠久的议会民主传统，实行君主立宪制，君主为国家元首，目前是伊莉莎白 二世。英国的立法机关，也就是议会，目前拥有两个议院。下议院地位较重要，上议院主 要是修订法律的机构。 行政机关由首相领导，英国现任首相为工党的托尼·布莱尔。通常，首相是在下议院拥 有最多席位的政党领袖。该政党其他主要成员与首相一起组成内阁，即主要的行政机构。 从严格意义上讲，英国并非是一个联邦制的国家，但现任政府最近在苏格兰及威尔士 成立了地方分权机构，如设在爱丁堡的苏格兰议会及设在卡地夫的威尔士议会。英国还试 图成立北爱地方分权政府，但是由于各政党之间存在纷争，以至于被暂时搁置下来。英格 兰和威尔士的立法、司法制度与苏格兰、北爱尔兰大不相同。同样，苏格兰的法律与英格 兰的法律也有不少的差异。虽然北爱尔兰有不少议会法令，但大部分都遵从英格兰的惯例 。它们的共同特点是拥有全国统一的最高法院（上议院），目前英国许多立法适用于英国 全境。 英国司法独立于政府行政机构。（ 如何使用英国的电话服务
： 热 固定电话 英国的固定电话服务主要由英国电话公司提供(British
Telecom，简称BT)。 其它大大小小 十多家电话公司的服务覆盖面远远小于BT。英国的电话计费方式与中国类似，采用按时计 费，一般按当地白天、当地夜晚/周末、长途白天、长途夜晚/周末、四个档次计费，国际长 途则因通话国家而不同。其它提供固定电话服务的多数同时提供有线电视服务，如NTL和T elewest。 长途电话 BT的长途电话费非常昂贵，英国到中国的长途电话每分钟
1 英镑以上。但有不少电话提供 较便宜的长途电话服务。这些公司通常要求你购买预先付款的电话卡，或事先向他们注册 你的电话号码。电话卡一般可以在唐人街的商店买到。
这些公司通常采用某些Internet
Phone (IP)技术以降低成本，有时会出现电话不通或通话质 量差的情况。价格在每分钟15-35p左右，但有时广告上所标示的价格会有种种限制，如必 须一次购买20英镑等。另外电话卡有使用期限，通常2至3个月。 另一些公司要求你先将你的电话号码向他们注册，然后每次打电话时，先拨一个特别的号 码，连上他们公司的网络，然后再拨你的打的号码。
电话上网 在英国使用电话上网非常方便。有许多网络服务供应商(ISP)可供选择。许多ISP会提供一个 按本地电话计费的电话号码供你拨号上网。如果你在晚上和周末使用，费用大概每小时
1 英镑左右。 但现在以有越来越多ISP提供“无限上网”服务(Unmetered Access)，即在你交纳一定的月费 后，你可以不限时地使用ISP的拨号上网服务。有些ISP允许你将月费用来打长途电话。另 有一些不收任何费用，但会在你的电脑上显示广告。
通常可以在他们的网页上登记为用户。但在选择ISP之前，一定要仔细阅读他们的用户条例 。 移动电话 英国有许多公司提供移动电话服务。他们有几个共同特点：不收入网费；不分本地长途； 接电话不收费(但固定电话打向移动电话收费较贵)；免费提供(或半卖半送)手机；自带手机 可以购买SIM卡服务。总的趋势是越来越便宜，但各公司提供的服务和计费方式五花八门， 在选择之前应进行仔细比较。
移动电话大致有两种收费方式：
月费方案 (Monthly
Payment)。即每月交纳一定费用，电话公司则提供一定量的免费通话时 间。超出部分按通话量计费。参加这种方案，电话公司会送你一个手机，通常有几种型号 可选择，但最新最好的手机一般你还需要付一点钱。月费方案的最大限制是你必须与电话 公司签一年合同，中途退出仍需交纳全年费用。
即付即打 (Pay As
You Go)。你不用交纳任何费用，向电话公司买个手机之后就可以上网 。在打电话之前，你必须先向你的电话帐号内存钱，可以通过购买电话公司的电话卡(Vouc her)或通过现金卡转帐。这种服务没有时间限制。
英国的主要移动电话网络： BT Cellnet One 2 One Orange Vodafone 英国皇室
性： 热 殖 民 地 的 象 征 ----- 皇室成员逐个数(一) (图 一) (图 二) (图 三) 文字说明： 1862年12月8日，香港发行第一套邮票。作为英国的殖民地，这套邮票采用的图案是 英国维多利亚女皇的侧面头像（图 一）。此后，英皇头像始终是香港普通邮票的“主角”， 还有许多纪念、恃种邮票描绘了英国皇室的各位成员。现在就让我们通过这些邮票来逐个“ 引见”。 1837年登基的维多利亚女皇于1901年传位给她的长子，他便是第二个出现在香港邮票 上的英皇爱德华七世（图 二）。到1912年，爱德华七世又传位给儿子乔治王子，也就是第 三个出现在香港邮票上的英皇乔治五世（图 三）。 (图 四) (图 五) (图 六) 文字说明： 1937年，乔治五世的次子加冕成为乔治六世，香港普通邮票图案作相应换成他的头像 （图 四）。但是说起来，假如当年不是乔治六世的兄长爱德华八世（即温莎公爵）不爱江 山爱美人，而在1936年宣布逊位，便不会有乔治六世继承皇位，更没有今日的伊丽莎白二 世女皇。 在香港于1948年12月22日发行的“乔治六世银婚纪念”邮票上，我们还可以看到乔治六 世和伊丽莎白皇后的肖像（图 五）。当年的皇后便是今日的皇太后，她还曾出现在“乔治六 世银婚纪念”、“英皇太后八十华诞纪念”（图 六）、“英皇太后 各时代之生活剪影”等香港纪 念邮票上。 (图 七) 文字说明： 1952年，乔治六世因病去世，他的长女登基成为英国的新君主，第二年接受加冕，这 就是至今在位的女皇伊丽莎白二世。她是在香港邮票上出现时间最长的英皇， 从1954年1 月5日起发行的普通邮票，除了两套卷筒邮票外，其余都是女皇伊丽莎白二世的头像。而此 后所有的纪念，恃种邮票上也都有她的头像（剪影）或皇冠标志。 伊丽莎白女皇在21岁时与当时的爱丁堡公爵（即今日的菲腊亲王）结婚，在1972年11 月20日发行的“英女皇银婚纪念”（图 七）及1975年4月30日发行的“女皇伉俪访港纪念”邮 票上便有他们的合影。 (图 八) 文字说明： 女皇和亲王育有三子一女，长子是人们所熟悉的皇储查理斯王子，生于1948年， 长女 是安妮公主，生于1950年，次子安德鲁王子，生于１９乳年，排行最小的则是爱德华王子 ，生于1964年。1973年安妮公主和马克．菲腊结婚时，香港邮政署曾于当年11月14日发 行一套“安妮公主新婚纪念”邮票（图 八）。 (图 九) 文字说明： 1981年查理斯王子与戴安娜结婚时，香港邮政署也发行了一套“太子大婚纪念” 邮票， 他们的形象还出现在1989年11月8日发行的“皇储伉俪访港纪念”邮票上（图 九）。不过， 安德鲁王子和王妃莎拉以及爱德华王子都未曾在香港邮票上露过面。
英国概况
性： 热 英 国 概 况 英国是典型的绅士淑女之乡，生活保守且讲传统，却也是尊重个人自由和思想宽容的民 族。英国最吸引游客的地方在于她的多样性的景观特色；英格兰—典雅秀丽；苏格兰—苍 劲豪迈；威尔士—古朴自然；北爱尔兰—神秘沧桑。看书、喝茶，足球和园艺是英国人最 喜爱的休闲方式。旅途中经过书店，茶坊和公园别忘了进去逛逛，感受一下英式风情。多 留些时间给中古小镇，那里浓厚的人情味和热闹市集，会令人倍感温馨。 喜爱自然山水的旅行者千万不要错过英格兰湖区，苏格兰高地和威尔士兵国家公园的 天地精华。 点击可放大 国歌：《神佑女王》 国鸟：红胸鸲 国花：玫瑰 人口：5780．1万（1992年） 首都：伦敦 面积：244110平方千米 语言：英语为官方语言 货币：英镑 宗教：居民多信奉基督教新教，主要教派有英格兰教会和苏格兰教会。英格兰教会亦称英 国国教圣公会，成员占英成人的60%。苏格兰教会亦称长老会，成年教徒79万。另有天主 教徒570万，伊斯兰教徒150万，犹太教徒40万。
国名：大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国（the
United kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland） 英 国 · 伦 敦 伦敦是英国的首都。一直是英国历史与文化的重心。从英国最辉煌的时代至今天，留 下了各时代的痕迹。处处可见古老宏伟的建筑，足以证实其历史上的丰功伟迹。 国会大厦 (House
of Parliament)： 国会大厦是世界最大的哥德式建筑物之一，占地三万平方公尺。 矗立於泰唔士河畔 ，气势雄伟，外貌典雅。国会大厦内有一千间房间，自13世纪以来 此处便是英国国会开 会之处，也同时兼为国王宫殿。但於1512年发生大火後，英皇爱德华六世在1547年把它拨 给下议院，从此成为国会大厦。这里的西敏寺大厅(Westminster
Hall)建於1097年，是唯一 剩下来的旧建筑部分，分上议院(House
of Lords)和下议院(House of Commons)。 西敏 大厅侧有一座闻名中外的「大笨钟」(Big
Ben)大笨钟每小时报时一次，钟声响起时远近可 闻，且是十分准时，英国BCC电视台也是依据此钟报时。 西敏寺(Westminister
Abbey)： 西敏寺是一位於国会大厦对面的教堂，始建於10世纪原为诺曼第式建筑，其後不断改 建及加建变为哥德式直至1755年才完成。自1066年威廉大帝在此登基起，历代皇帝及皇后 均在此加冕，英国有不少王侯将相皆埋葬於此，所以西敏寺是英国地位最高的教堂。 白金汉宫(Buckingham
Palace)： 白金汉宫，位於圣詹姆士宫与Victoria火车站之间，1703年由白金汉公爵兴建，1863 年始成为英国历代君主的寝宫，是英皇权力的中心地，皇宫是一座灰色建筑物，四周围上 栏杆，宫殿前面的广场有很多雕像。其中维多利亚女王像上的金色天使，代表皇室希望能 再创造维多利亚时代的光辉，若皇宫正上方飘扬著英国皇帝旗帜时，则表示女王仍在宫中 培莎德夫人蜡像馆(Madame
Tussaud' s)： 培莎德夫人蜡像馆是世界著名的蜡像馆，内藏培德夫人所制蜡像的真品。以蜡像所造 成的人物很多，有三百尊以上，有英国历代的国王、各国政治领袖、历史名人、明星等。 蜡像制作精巧，几可以假真。 大英博物馆(British
Museum)： 大英博物馆，与纽约大都会博物馆及巴黎罗浮宫并称为世界三大博物馆。博物馆草创 之时，以展览汉斯、舒隆爵士、罗伯特·普顿爵士和牛津伯爵三人收藏品为主。 四年之後 ，英国政府将全部收购品转藏於现址，并於1759年成立了世界最早的国立博物馆，大英博 物馆的搜集品，包罗万有。这里收藏了各式各样的外国文物，包括大量埃及木乃伊、石雕 、壁画、古希腊神殿、中国敦煌壁画、佛像、金刚般若波罗密多心经等。 伦敦塔(Tower of
London)： 伦敦塔建於1078年，经历九百年不断加建修茸，始成今貌。伦敦塔实际上是由十几座 堡叠砌交错而成，这些碉堡一直是英国王室的居所、宝库、军械粮饷库或拘囚政治犯的监 狱。英国历史上许多当权得势的王侯后妃一旦失宠，便会沦为伦敦塔的囚犯，塔内的St.
Thomas’s Tower 有一道拱形门，本来是保护塔门的入口，因为所有重要的政治犯都会经过 这道门，所以叫做「叛徒门」(Traitors’s Gate)左边为「血塔」(Bloody Tower)乃因许多历 史上的流血事件而得名，塔内也有一珍贵馆
(Jewel House)里面陈列著各种有关王室的宝物 。如皇冠、权杖、珠宝及刀剑等。其中最有名是「大英帝国的皇冠」(Imperial
State Crown)和「权杖」(Royal
Sceptre) 权杖上有一颗350卡名「非洲之星」的南非巨钻。此 外 还有一座White
Tower是享利八世为了放置武器而建的武器库(Armoury)目前除了享利 八世的所有品外，还展示了欧洲的甲胄及中世纪的各种武器。 塔桥(Tower
Bridge)： 塔桥位於伦敦塔旁，建於1894年，这座桥是伦敦市的象徵之一。塔桥集合了当时各种 建筑技术而建成，跨过市中心泰唔士河(Thames)的桥全长270 公尺，桥上两座高塔中央的 桥梁，可以升起让大船经过，高塔现改为博物馆，展出巨型蒸汽机及锅炉，也介绍该桥的 历史。 英 国 的 民 族 英国人属于哪个民族的呢？ 从公元前一直到公元1066年法国的诺曼人征服英格兰，先后有好几个民族曾到该岛上 定居过。 伊伯利亚人：不知和时来岛。属地中海种族。 凯尔特族： 第一批为盖尔人，是苏格兰.爱尔兰人 的祖先，使用盖尔语。第二批为属凯尔特人的不列 颠人，是威尔士人的祖先。不列颠遂成为联合王国 国名的主体部分。 罗马人：公元前一世纪来岛。带来了拉丁字母。 日尔曼人：公元5世纪中叶，日尔曼系的盎格鲁人 .撒克逊人等侵入英伦。其中盎格鲁人 较为强大，称该岛为“盎格鲁的土地（Angle-land）,英格兰（England）一词便源于此。盎 格鲁棗撒克逊语言也是现代英语的祖先。原有的不列颠人则被赶到威尔士及英格兰南部。 现在的威尔士语便是不列颠的语言。 丹麦人：公元9世纪来自斯堪的纳维亚地区。他们并非全是维金人。1016年丹麦人克努特 征服英格兰。 诺曼人：诺曼底公爵威廉颇有名气。他于1066年即位英格兰王，确立了贵族制开始了诺曼 底王朝。 这样看来，并没有纯粹的“英国人”。或许只能说，英国人就是英国人。 英 国 货 币 简 史 货币简史： 英镑为英国的本位货币单位，由英格兰银行发行。辅市单位原为先令(Shiling)和便士（ Penny），1英镑等于20先令，1先令等于12便士，1971年2月15日，英格兰银行实行新的 货币进位制，辅币单位改为新便士（New
Penny），1英镑等于100新便士。目前，流通中 的纸币有5、10、20和50面额的英镑，另有1、2、5、10、20、 50新便士及1英镑的铸币 。 英国于1821年正式采用金本位制，英镑成为英国的标准货币单位，每1英镑含 7.32238克纯金。1914年第一次世界大战爆发，英国废除金本位制，金币停止流通， 英国 停止兑换黄金。1925年5月13日，英国执行金块本位制，以后又因世界经济大危机而于193 1年9月21日被迫放弃，英镑演化成不能兑现的纸币。但因外汇管制的需要，1946年12月1 8日仍规定英镑含金量为3.58134克。 到20世纪初叶，英镑一直是资本主义世界最重要的国际支付手段和储备货币， 第一次 世界大战后，英镑的国际储备货币地位趋于衰落，逐渐被美元所取代。第二次世界大战爆 发时期，英国实行严格的外汇管制，将英镑汇率固定在1英镑兑换4.03美元的水平上。194 7年7月15日，英国宣布英镑实行自由兑换，由于外汇储备迅速流失，于同年8月份又恢复 外汇管制。1949年9月，英国宣布英镑贬值30.5％，
将英镑兑美元汇率贬到2.80美元，1967年11月18日，英镑再次贬值，兑美元汇率降至2.40 美元，英镑含金量也降为2.13281克。1971年8月15日美元实行浮动汇率后，英镑开始以不 变的含金量为基础确定对美元的比价。同年12月18日美元正式贬值后，英镑兑换美元的新 的官方汇率升值为1英镑兑换2.6057美元。实际汇率可在1英镑兑换2.5471美元至2.6643美 元的限度内浮动，波幅为4.5％左右。1973年3月19日，西欧八国组成联合浮动集团，英国 未参加，继续单独浮动。翌年1月，英镑实际汇率制成为有管理的浮动汇率机制。同年，英 镑区缩小，仅包括英国、爱尔兰、开曼群岛和海峡群岛。英镑发行的黄金准备至少相当于2 6.5亿英镑以上。 1990年10月8日，英镑加入欧洲货币体系，其对货币体系内各种货币汇率 的波动幅度为6％。1992年9月16日，英国宣布英镑暂时脱离欧洲货币体系。 享 誉 世 界 的 伦 敦 古 迹 一．“大本钟 ” “大本钟 ”坐落于泰晤士河畔议会大厦的北面，耸立着高高的钟楼，镶有大钟，名为“大 本”。每隔一小时，大钟根据格林威治时间发出沉重而铿锵的响声，在数英里之外也能听到 钟声的回荡。 1859年，大钟由当时的英王工务大臣本杰明·霍尔爵士监制，大钟共重21吨，铸造时耗 资2.7万英镑。 “大本”钟被视为伦敦的象征，凡到伦敦观光的人，无不想到钟楼周围，站在议会桥上欣 赏伦敦这个独具一格的建筑。 二．伦敦塔 伦敦塔始建于1078年。它在历史上既作过王宫，也作过法院，后来又是一所监狱。伦 敦塔占地7.2公顷，周围用巨石筑成一道厚实的城墙。城墙上有许多炮台、箭楼，四周是一 条又宽又深的护城河。从1107年，诺曼征服伦敦后，伦敦塔成了国王行辕总署和兵营。从 1140年到17世纪该塔一直是英国历代国王的主要住处。英国暴君詹姆斯一世在塔内被处死 之后，伦敦塔就成了监禁犯人的牢狱和刑场。 伦敦塔现在已经成了对外开放的博物馆。塔内有个珍宝馆，观众可以看到英国历代国 王的王冠、王室珍藏的金银珠宝。伦敦古堡中还有一些身体肥胖称为“渡乌” 的大乌鸦，有 专人饲养。伦敦塔有千年的历史，堪称伦敦最悠久的古迹，游客每年达200万人。在出入口 处游人可以看到两名身着古老的都铎王朝制服的禁卫，这些 “古老卫士”们，成了游客欣赏 和摄影的对象。 三．大英博物馆 大英博物馆位于伦敦中心，闹区的格雷·拉塞尔大街北侧。它是一座规模庞大的古罗马 柱式建立，气魄雄伟、十分壮观。这里珍藏的文物和图书资料是世界上任何一个博物馆所 不能比拟的。大英博物馆建于1753年，6年后正式开放，原来主要收藏图书，其后兼收历 史文物和各国古代艺术品。 埃及馆是博物馆中最大的陈列室之一。陈列数量达7万多件。在希腊、罗马馆有公元5 世纪雅典女神的祀庙和古罗马历代皇帝的半身雕像。在西亚艺术馆，陈列有历名悠久的波 斯文物和3700多年前巴比伦时代国王汉穆拉比赐于贵族的两块地界碑。最引人注目的是东 方艺术馆，这里除中亚、南亚和日本的文物外，大部分是中国的历代稀世珍品，为数达2万 多件。 大英博物馆的藏书在世界上也久负盛名。有大量的英国和世界的经典文献、书籍、手 稿、档案，不少是仅存的珍本。除英文外，还有阿拉伯文、波斯文、土耳其文、梵文、印 地文、蒙文和中文等许多种文字的书籍。仅中国书刊就有6万多种。 历史上许多学者、名流、政治活动家都曾在大英图书馆博览群书，进行研究和写作。 无产阶级革命导师卡尔·马克思移居伦敦后，数十年如一日从不间断，终于完成了不朽的巨 著《资本论》。 四．威斯敏斯特教堂 威斯敏斯特教堂是11世纪号称“笃信者”的英王爱德华建立的。教堂的主要特点是大门处 有一对塔楼。教堂自建以来，一直是英国历代国王或女王加冕礼典和王室成员结婚的场所 。英国历代国王死后，大部分葬在这里。英国资产阶级革命后，许多名人死后，在教堂也 占有一席之地。英国把威斯敏斯特教堂称为“荣誉的宝塔尖”。现在，威斯敏斯特大教堂不但 是名人的墓地，而且是难得的“历史博物馆”。 英 国 的 巴 罗 克 音 乐 这里简要介绍一下英国的巴罗克音乐。文艺复兴时期，英国涌现出一批杰出作曲家， 如泰利斯（1505-1585）、拜尔德（1543-1623）、吉本斯（1585-1625）等。到了16世 纪后期，英国宗教界出现了一股清教主义运动潮流（清教主义者认为应当清除英国国教中 的天主教残余影响而得名）。清教思潮反对人文主义思想，排斥尘世的娱乐，认为音乐舞 蹈等艺术是有罪的。17世纪前半期，清教徒在政治上逐渐得势。他们多代表新兴的资产阶 级和新贵族，成为英国资产阶级革命的骨干。宗教、政治的纷争，清教主义的兴起使得18 世纪前半期的英国音乐呈现出近乎空白的局面。英国资产阶级革命胜利后，主要由清教徒 组成的政府取消了宗教仪式上的音乐，封闭了所有的歌剧院，英国的音乐界沉默了。 1658年斯图亚特王朝在英国复辟。这一历史的倒退却成了英国音乐得以发展的转机。 17世纪后期英国最重要的音乐家是普赛尔。普赛尔一生创作了大量优秀的宗教音乐、歌曲 、话剧配乐，最重要的贡献是晚年的歌剧，带有明显的英国市民趣味和民族特色。普赛尔 去世后，英国歌剧发展再度陷于停顿，意大利正歌剧充斥英国剧院。1714年，亨德尔定居 英国，为沉闷的英国歌剧界带来了活力。他的正歌剧《里纳尔多》等在英国大受欢迎。 18世纪二十年代末，传统的意大利正歌剧因为其沉闷的脚本、空洞的内容和雷同的剧 情不能适应市民阶层的口味，逐渐失去了市场。这时一部针砭时弊的《乞丐的歌剧》（约 翰·盖伊词，佩普什曲）在伦敦上演，它取材于日常生活，采用通俗幽默的对白和流行的曲 调，赢得了市民的广泛好评。剧中对以亨德尔为代表的意大利正歌剧作了无情的讽刺，使 意大利歌剧在英国受到了沉重打击，亨德尔经营的歌剧院最后因亏损而关闭。这时亨德尔 把精力转向了清唱剧的创作。清唱剧（oratorio）是一种大型宗教性声乐形式，内容多取材 于圣经，所谓“清唱”是指没有舞台动作和服装布景的变换。亨德尔把这种形式推向了顶峰。 他的《所罗门》、《以色列人在埃及》、《参孙》都大获成功，1641年他的《弥赛亚》成 了这一体裁的巅峰之作，其中的《哈里路亚》堪与巴赫的《b小调弥撒》并称为巴罗克声乐 艺术的最高成就。 亨德尔逝世后，英国每年为纪念他都要举行清唱剧专场演出。但在他之 后，英国乐坛再也没出现堪称伟大的音乐大师。 英国天文地理
性： 热 概 述 旅游英国首都伦敦,可以体味到英国人的生活方式,许多闻名世界的景点,例如英国皇室举 行婚礼的蜡像馆、植物众多的乔园等等,令人目不暇接.伦敦市的交通发达,巴士和地下铁路 可以把你带到各个角落.但市内交通繁忙,倘若遇到上下班时间,塞车是等闲事情.
如果要省事, 买一张“一日旅游票”在市内游玩,方便.“一日旅游票”的好处是,当日你可凭票不限次数地乘搭 巴士及地铁.如想购物到了伦敦,就非要到牛津街和丽晶街购物不可,那里的物品繁多,从钟表 、珠宝到瓷器．甚至真正英国出产的名牌Burberrys,应有尽有. 旅游景点 西敏寺 西敏寺是历代英皇加冕之地,久而久之便成了天主教的权威教堂 .它有色彩艳丽的玻璃窗,窗上的绘画均以＜圣经＞里的故事为主 题,墙上雕着不同形态的圣经人物像,玲珑精致. 帝国战争博物馆 “帝国战争博物馆”大癯口处,放置着那尊曾安装在英国海军最 先进皇家伊利沙白军 舰上的巨型大炮.这尊造于一九一四年的大炮,重达一百吨,射程约为六十公里,是当时世界上 最先进的大炮.在这尊大炮旁边,还摆放着几枚巨型炮弹.走进馆内,可以参观英国在两次世界 大战中使用过的武器,以及参战经过的描述.此外还有有关太平洋战争的珍贵图片. 大英博物馆 大英博物馆位于帝国战争博物馆的另一头,展示了昔日英国海军四处所夺得的各国文物, 其中包括希腊、意大利、印度等古物、还有中国的许多国宝.以埃及的最为丰富,包括法老像 、石柱、石棺、纸草文件以及木乃伊等. 白金汉宫 白金汉宫代表着英国皇室的权力,这个由白金汉公爵于一七零三年始建的建筑物,于一个 世纪后成为皇室的居住地,直至现在.由于每天早上都有御林军的换岗仪式举行,还有骑警,引 人观看. 国会大厦 国会大厦是英国政府的立法机关,游客可以自由进入,旁听英国议员的辩论.它的大笨钟 闻名于世. 市内漫步 可以到伦敦塔桥桥面踱步,欣赏河景,或安坐塔桥旁的草地上休息.如果对战舰有兴趣,可 以登上停泊在塔桥前的贝尔法斯特号战舰;这战舰曾在第一次世界大战中服役.走进占地一百 六十多万平方公尺的海德公园,在湖中划小船是伦敦市民最爱去的休憩地. 想体会中国气味可到唐人街,观察当地华人的生活情态. 咸顿宫 依傍泰晤士河的咸顿宫 距伦敦市二十公里,其墙染上红色,古旧味甚浓,宫内最出名的是古老的大厨房及厨具.原为红 衣主教胡迪所有,后成为历代英皇的别宫. 温莎堡 温莎堡在伦敦西面十多公里处,堡前有一大片绿茵草坪.收藏有丰富古代文物如武士剑、 簪矛等的温莎堡是皇室别墅,平时若无外国元首到访,堡内会开放共游人参观. 剑桥 剑桥离伦 敦市较远,有一百多公里.它是书卷味甚浓的市镇,拥有许多大学.其中最具气派的还数歌德式 建筑的“皇家学院”,它的面顶部全都以尖塔修建. 英 国 【自然地理】 英国是大不列颠岛和爱尔兰岛东北部及附近许多岛屿组成的岛国。东濒北海，面对比 利时、荷兰、德国、丹麦和挪威等国；西邻爱尔兰，横隔大西洋与美国、加拿大遥遥相对 ；北过大西洋可达冰岛；南穿英吉利海峡行33公里就到法国。 英格兰全境面积为13万平方公里，占大不列颠岛的大部分。这一地区自西向东分为4部 分：以塞文河流域为中心的米德兰平原；海拔200米左右的高地；伦敦盆地；威尔德丘陵。 威尔士面积有2万余平方公里，境内多山、地势崎岖。威尔士境内有1/4的土地被列为 国家公园及天然保护区。 苏格兰和其周围的许多小岛，面积共为7.8万平方公里。全境均属山岳地带
只有中部 较为低平。 北爱尔兰面积1.4万平方公里，隔爱尔兰海与大不列颠岛遥遥相望。北爱尔兰气候属海 洋性温带阔叶林气候。最热天(7月)平均气温为13～17℃，最冷天(1 月)平均气温为4～7℃ 。英格兰地势较低，年平均降水量830毫米，西部、北部山区雨量较大，最高可达4000毫 米。 英国主要的矿产资料有煤、铁、石油和天然气。硬煤总储量1700亿吨。铁的蕴藏量约 为38亿吨。西南部康沃尔半岛有锡矿。在柴郡和达腊姆蕴藏着大量石盐。斯塔福德郡有优 质粘土。康沃尔半岛出产白粘土。奔宁山脉东坡可开采白云石。兰开夏西南部施尔德利丘 陵附近蕴藏着石英矿。在英国北海大陆架石油蕴藏量约在10～ 40亿吨之间。天然气蕴藏量 约在8600～25850亿立方米左右。 【社会·人口与民族】 英国现有人口主要由英格兰人(占人口总数的80%以上)、威尔士人、苏格兰和爱尔兰 人组成。人口密度为每平方公里229人，但全国人口分布不均。人口的80% 住在城市。 英 国人口分为4个民族，即英格兰人、苏格兰人、威尔士人和爱尔兰人。 在本世纪，有些人 从欧洲大陆来到英国。其中犹太人在欧洲大陆移民中占绝大多数。近几年，有些西印度人 、巴基斯坦人也到英国寻求新的生活。还有少数美国人、澳大利亚人、中国人、越南人到 英国定居。 【社会·语言与宗教】 英语是官方语言，也是世界上许多国家的通用语。据估计，世界上以英语为国语的人 约占3亿。 英国居民大多数信基督教。一些英国人还信奉罗马天主教、伊斯兰教、佛教、印度教 、锡克族、犹太教等。 【社会·民风民俗】 英国人一向注意服装的得体与美观。男要肩平，女要束腰，衣服平整，裤线笔挺。即 要突出健美的线条，还要掩盖身体的缺陷。 在某些特定的正式场合，英国人还保留不少传统服装。法院正式开庭时，法官仍然头 戴假发，身穿黑袍。教堂做礼拜时，牧师要穿上长袍。每届国会开幕，女王前往致词时， 更是头戴珠光闪烁的王冠，随行的王宫女侍都身着白色的长裙礼服；王宫卫士身穿鲜红的 短外衣、黄扣黄束腰，头戴高筒黑皮帽。伦敦塔楼的卫士黑帽、黑衣、上绣红色王冠及红 色边线。近卫骑兵是黑衣、白马裤、黑长靴、白手套，头戴银盔，上面飘着高高的红穗。
【经济】 从第二次世界大战后到现在，英国在世界经济中的地位不断下降，但是英国仍然是西 方七大经济强国之一。1991年英国人均国民总产值为17445元。 英国是资本主义生产关系的发源地。从第二次世界大战结束到70年代，英国经济曾出 现持续的高就业。1970年以后，情况变了。1973～1975和1979～1981年这两次经济危机 都很严重。英国经济已经陷进滞胀的困境之中。1990年英国的失业率为6%。从本世纪初到 80年代英国经济增长率一直不高，70年代后经济增长率比 60年代和50年代还低。而1990 年的英国经济增长率竟然下降为0.5%，1991年国内生产总值为-2.4%。
【经济·农业】 英国大农业生产仍然以家庭为基础，只有少数农户雇用全日制农工。在北爱尔兰，全 部农村都是自食其力的农民，没有出租的土地。英国政府对农业一直实行补贴政策。英国 农业产值在国内总产值中仅占2%，固定资本投资率为总投资率的 2.1%，农业就业量为总 民用就业量的2.6%，可见，农业在英国经济中并不占重要地位。 从1964到1986，英国的 农作物和家畜产品的单位产量都有了相当的提高。每公顷小麦的产量由4.05吨增加到6.95 吨，每公顷马铃薯的产量由24吨增加到34.76 吨，每头牛的产奶量由3565升增加到4952升 ，每只鸡的产蛋量由202个增加到256 个。 【经济·工业】 英国是古老的工业发达国家，第二次世界大战后，英国工业发展缓慢。在工业生产中 ，只有石油和天然气发展迅速。 在北海油田大约有169个公司获得特许证，6家大公司的生产份额大约占总产量的一半 以上。 近200年中，煤是主要的能源。但是从第二次世界大战以后，煤在英国经济生活中的 地位江河日下，生产规模日益缩小。尽管英国采煤业不断衰落，但仍然是英国重要的工业 部门。 钢铁曾经是英国最有生气的部门，从1973年以后，钢铁也开始走下坡路。钢铁企业的 平均生产规模要比全部制造业的平均生产规模大4.5倍。产量、销售量和就业量的80%，集 中在5家最大的公司。英国钢铁公司是英国最大的钢铁企业，它是 1967年由13个大钢铁公 司合并成的国营企业，每年粗钢生产能力是<'span>2400万吨，仅次于美国的钢铁公司。 汽车工业仍然是英国经济的主要组成部分，也已成为整个欧洲汽车工业的一个组成部 分。但英国每年还得从外国进口大量汽车，以满足本国居民的需要。从70年代到80年代， 英国一些主要汽车公司都亏损经营。 几十年来，建筑业也不断衰退。1973～1985年，英国的国内总产值增长了 16%，而 同期建筑业的产值则下降了15%。建筑业技术进步比较慢，仍然是劳动密集型行业，手工 体力劳动仍然是大量的。 【经济·交通运输】 英国的交通十分发达，铁路纵横交错，公路四通八达，空中航线通往世界重要城市， 海运航线可达五大洲主要港口。1947年政府将整个铁路和主要公路设施收归国有。 本世纪 80年代，英国铁路全长1.77万公里，各种机车、客车、车辆16.28万辆，铁路覆盖全国。1 991年铁路客运里程3331.6万公里，居世界第十一位。 到80年代初，英国全国公路网总长36.14万公里。其中2593公里是高速公路。英国人 主要的交通工具是私人小轿车，其次才是各类长途公共汽车。公路货运的重要性日益增大 ，以吨位计占全国总货运量的85%。 英国的航空事业很发达。国际航线可往返世界上68个 国家和地区。有145个终点站，国际航线达58万公里，此外，还有定期班机飞行本土26个 城市，每周航班达1000多架次。希恩罗机场是世界上最繁忙的国际机场，每年通过该机场 出进伦敦的乘客达2800万人次，每3分钟就有一架飞机起落。大约有70多家航空公司使用 这一机场。从伦敦向外有8条主干航线通往英国的主要城市，每条主干线每年运送的旅客都 在10万人以上。 海运是英国的生命线。英国有伦敦、利物浦、朴斯茅斯、多佛、布赖顿、 南安普敦、伊斯特本等天然海港。英国与欧洲大陆海上联系主要靠英吉利海峡的轮渡。海 峡上有几条短程航线，分别通往法、比、荷3国，共有60艘渡船来往穿梭。 【经济·财政金融】 英国政府对公司赚取的利润也要征税，这种税收叫公司利润税，标准的公司利润率是 35%。销售税和关税是以物征税。政府对物征税主要是为了增加收入。 英国的金融体系由 中央银行、商业银行及其它金融机构组成。中央银行是英格兰银行。凡是从事金融业的商 业银行和其它机构都必须得到英格兰银行的认可，或者有英格兰银行发放的特许证，否则 ，不能从事金融业务。商业银行和其它金融机构都必须经常向英格兰银行提供其有关业务 的资料，也都必须执行英格兰银行向它们下达的指令。 零售银行也是英国金融机构的一种。它是负责向企业和个人提供零售业务的银行。英 格兰和威尔士的主要零售银行有4大家。 承兑公司是英国很久以前建立的金融机构。它的 主要业务活动就是承兑商业票据，批发银行的商业活动，在短期货币市场上经营数额较大 货币。承兑公司有时作为发行公司，代替一些公司向公众发行股票。此外，伦敦是欧洲货 币市场的中心，外国银行都在伦敦设立分支机构，彼此为争夺新国际银行业务份额竞争。 伦敦城内的外国银行的资产和负债远远超过英国国内的同业银行市场上的贷放额。 生命保 险公司和老年退休金也可以算作金融中介机构。这两个机构都从储蓄者手中吸收资金后贷 给借款者。到1984年底，生命保险公司所积累的资金高达1128.51 亿英磅。这笔巨额资金 主要投资于公司股票、英国政府债券、土地开发和国外资产上。 英国的资本市场是买卖股 票、优先股票和债券的市场，有初级市场和次级市场之分。初级市场就是发行新证券的市 场，次级市场是买卖已经发行的证券的市场。英国资本市场的交易规模相当大。国有公司 和海外借款者平均每年筹集的新资金达
39.25亿英磅；英格兰银行平均每年为政府卖债券 达92.07亿英镑；交易所的营业额平均每年达3500亿英镑，每个工作日达14亿英镑。1991 年通货膨胀率4.1%。 【经济·对外贸易】 英国是一个对外高度开放的国家，每年的进出口额在其国内总产值中占有相当大的比 重。英国每年大约有26%的食品和原料要从外国进口，对世界经济的依赖程度较大。主要 出口物品是机器、半工业品和工业品。1991年出口商品值1883亿美元，亏损141.22亿美元 。 【城市】 伦敦 首都。是英国的政治、经济、文化和交通中心，最大海港和首要工业城市。它位 于英格兰东南部，跨泰晤士河下游两岸，距河口88公里。世界十大都市之一。 伦敦市城外 的12个市区，称内伦敦，以外的20个市区，称外伦敦。伦敦城加上内外伦敦，合称大伦敦 市。伦敦城面积1.6平方公里，大伦敦面积则达1580平方公里。 伦敦的交通很发达，是英国的铁路中心，十几条铁路干线从这里伸向大不列颠岛上各 主要城镇。伦敦也是全国公路网的中心。伦敦还是世界上最大的国际港口和航运市场，世 界上所有的主要航运、造船和租船公司，都在这里设有代表机构。伦敦的西郊有一座欧洲 客运量最大的国际机场——希恩罗机场。 伦敦是座多古迹名胜的城市，这里有白金汉宫、唐宁街10号(首相府)、议会大厦、大 本钟、“伦敦城”、大英博物馆、蜡人馆、圣保罗教堂、威斯敏特教堂、格林威治、“东伦敦” 、“西伦敦”、“中国城”、海德公园和马克思城。 朴次茅斯 英国南部中段沿海重要商港和最老的海军基地之一，扼英吉利海峡的朴次茅 斯湾湾口。朴次茅斯建于12世纪，19世纪中叶成为重要海军基地，而且是军港、渔港、商 港三者兼而有之。 伯明翰 是仅次于伦敦的英国第二大城市。17世纪后，逐渐发展起来的一个工业城市， 并享有“世界车间”之美称。伯明翰分为新城和老城。新城的火车站附近是英国工业展览会的 所在地。老城车站是伯明翰市的中心。这里商店集中，道路狭窄，人流不息，因而禁止车 辆通行。伯明翰市区只有少数的高楼大厦，大部建筑都是二层楼房，显得古朴无华。伯明 翰的四周，有无数大工厂。它的工业产值占全国工业产值的1/5。 曼彻斯特 曼彻斯特 在英 格兰西北部兰开夏郡内，是英国中部地区工商业、金融和文化中心。曼彻斯特是英国工业 革命的故乡。从20世纪初，曼彻斯特的工业结构发生了变化，纺织工业衰退了，机械、电 子、化学、炼油、食品加工、玻璃塑料等工业发展起来。曼彻斯特市中心的商业区相当繁 华，阿登商业中心是最大商店。从曼彻斯特商业中心往西南步行30多分钟就到了曼彻斯特 的贫民区，这里是欧洲最大的贫民窟。曼彻斯特也是一座文化城市，是英国新闻业的第二 中心，英国北部地区的广播和电视总部都设在这里。曼彻斯特是英国工人运动的中心之一 。恩格斯曾在此居住多年。 利物浦 在英格兰西海岸默西河口，英国的大工业中心和第二大 商港，有人口 47万(1983年)。港口的海堤全长11公里，1年的货物吞吐量达3000万吨。利 物浦是个历史悠久的古城，这里有许多有名的观光胜地。利物浦北部爱尔兰海岸上有几个 风景优美的海滨休养地，其中最大的是布莱克普尔。布莱克普尔的灯景是利物浦的一大景 观。沿岸长长的海堤，马路的两边和天空布满了彩灯。灯形千奇百怪。 【旅游】 “大本”钟 泰晤士河畔议会大厦的北面，耸立着高高的钟楼，镶有大钟，名为“大本”。每 隔一小时，大钟根据格林威治时间发出沉重而铿锵的响声，在数英里之外也能听到钟声的 回荡。 1859年，大钟由当时的英王工务大臣本杰明·霍尔爵士监制，大钟共重21吨，铸造时 耗资2.7万英镑。 “大本”钟被视为伦敦的象征，凡到伦敦观光的人，无不想到钟楼周围，站在议会桥上欣 赏伦敦这个独具一格的建筑。 伦敦塔 伦敦塔始建于1078年。它在历史上既作过王宫，也作过法院，后来又是一所监狱。伦 敦塔占地7.2公顷，周围用巨石筑成一道厚实的城墙。城墙上有许多炮台、箭楼，四周是一 条又宽又深的护城河。从1107年，诺曼征服伦敦后，伦敦塔成了国王行辕总署和兵营。从 1140年到17世纪该塔一直是英国历代国王的主要住处。英国暴君詹姆斯一世在塔内被处死 之后，伦敦塔就成了监禁犯人的牢狱和刑场。
伦敦塔现在已经成了对外开放的博物馆。塔内有个珍宝馆，观众可以看到英国历代国 王的王冠、王室珍藏的金银珠宝。伦敦古堡中还有一些身体肥胖称为“渡乌” 的大乌鸦，有 专人饲养。伦敦塔有千年的历史，堪称伦敦最悠久的古迹，游客每年达200万人。在出入口 处游人可以看到两名身着古老的都铎王朝制服的禁卫，这些 “古老卫士”们，成了游客欣赏 和摄影的对象。 大英博物馆 大英博物馆位于伦敦中心，闹区的格雷·拉塞尔大街北侧。它是一座规模庞大的古罗马 柱式建立，气魄雄伟、十分壮观。这里珍藏的文物和图书资 料是世界上任何一个博物馆所 不能比拟的。大英博物馆建于1753年，6年后正式开放，原来主要收藏图书，其后兼收历 史文物和各国古代艺术品。 埃及馆是博物馆中最大的陈列室之一。陈列数量达7万多件。在希腊、罗马馆有公元5 世纪雅典女神的祀庙和古罗马历代皇帝的半身雕像。在西亚艺术馆，陈列有历名悠久的波 斯文物和3700多年前巴比伦时代国王汉穆拉比赐于贵族的两块地界碑。最引人注目的是东 方艺术馆，这里除中亚、南亚和日本的文物外，大部分是中国的历代稀世珍品，为数达2万 多件。 大英博物馆的藏书在世界上也久负盛名。有大量的英国和世界的经典文献、书籍、手 稿、档案，不少是仅存的珍本。除英文外，还有阿拉伯文、波斯文、土耳其文、梵文、印 地文、蒙文和中文等许多种文字的书籍。仅中国书刊就有6万多种。 历史上许多学者、名流、政治活动家都曾在大英图书馆博览群书，进行研究和写作。 无产阶级革命导师卡尔·马克思移居伦敦后，数十年如一日从不间断，终于完成了不朽的巨 著《资本论》。 威斯敏斯特教堂 威斯敏斯特教堂是11世纪号称“笃信者”的英王爱德华建立的。教堂的主要特点是大门 处有一对塔楼。教堂自建以来，一直是英国历代国王或女王加冕礼典和王室成员结婚的场 所。英国历代国王死后，大部分葬在这里。英国资产阶级革命后，许多名人死后，在教堂 也占有一席之地。英国把威斯敏斯特教堂称为“荣誉的宝塔尖”。现在，威斯敏斯特大教堂不 但是名人的墓地，而且是难得的“历史博物馆”。 马克思墓地 1956年3月14日，英国工人和各国共产党合力重建了马克思墓。新的马克思墓在公墓 东北角略宽敞的地方，墓用花岗石修建，呈方柱，高8英尺，碑顶安放4英尺高的马克思铜 铸头像。墓碑正面上刻着金光闪闪的大字：“全世界无产者联合起来!”下方镌有马克思的名 言：“哲学家们只是用不同的方式解释世界，而问题在于改造世界。” 格林威治 格林威治位于伦敦东南的泰晤士河畔，这里有昔日的皇家天文台、国家航海博物馆、 皇家海军学院以及风景秀丽的公园。格林威治久负盛名，近100
年来，各国出版的地图都 以经过伦敦格林威治的经线为本初子午线，作为计算地理经度的起点，也是“世界时区”的起 点，并用它的计时仪器来校准本国时间。站在格林威治了望台上眺望，泰晤士河岸的绚丽 风光一目了然，伦敦的景致也一览无余。 中国城 “中国城”地处伦敦的索霍地区，伦敦最繁华的牛津街和摄政街在此交错，英国人把这块 方圆不足一平方公里的弹丸之地称为“中国城”，又曰“唐人街”。“中国城”即无高层建筑，也 没有豪华的大公司，几乎所有建筑都比较矮，在“中国城”除少数是外国人经营的商店和酒吧 间外，几乎是华人的天下。漫步“中国城”，一间间用汉字书写的商号目不暇接。“中国城”的 餐馆林立，粗略计算至 大文豪莎士比亚 少不下100余家。“中国城”的华人，大部分来自香 港、东南亚，也有少数是从上海、北京、江苏等地去的。每逢新春佳节，“中国城”张灯结彩 ，男女老幼穿上新装，互相道贺“恭喜发财”，男女青年舞龙耍狮，表演中国杂技，一片欢腾 景象，吸引不少当地居民和外来观光者。 莎士比亚故乡 世界戏剧大师莎士比亚的故乡是艾玛河畔斯特拉斯福。人口仅2
万，但 游客每年达150万人次。人们来此的主要目的是要看一看莎士比亚诞生、工作、生活和安息 的地方。莎士比亚的故居坐落在亨利街，它是一幢典型的都铎式的两层木房，古雅庄重。 房子的右侧是“莎士比亚中心”，这所现代化的大厦既是图书馆也是档案馆，由美国及加拿大 私人捐款建成。莎士比亚婚后住的房子叫“安妮·赫舍薇的茅舍”，房内布置仍尽量仿照当年 模样。莎士比亚热爱自己的家乡，死后就葬在圣三一教堂。
英 国 旅 游 首都--伦敦 气候： 伦敦及曼彻斯特的天气狻相似， 一至三月的均温度约为摄氏8度，雨量为35毫米， 到了七 至九月的夏季，平均气温则升至摄氏20度左右， 雨量约为52毫米。 语言： 主要语言为英语。 货币： 英镑(1￡=100pence) 出/入境： 没有限制。 机场： 伯明翰机场 市区东南面13公里 伦敦希斯路国际机场 距市中心24公里 曼彻斯特国际机场 市区西南面15公里 机场交通： 伦敦希斯路国际机场： 地下铁- 3.2镑，计程车- 40镑 曼彻斯特国际机场： 巴士- 1.95镑，火车- 2.35镑，计程车- 12镑
机场税： 伦敦希斯路国际机场： 国际航班- 20镑， 内陆航班- 10镑 (已包括在机票费用内) 曼彻斯特国№机场： 国际航班- 10镑， 内陆航班- 5镑 (已包括在机票费用内) 海关： 香烟200支或雪茄50支或小雪茄100支或
250克烟草，50克香水。 时差： 比中国标准时间慢8小时 食水： 自来水可饮用。 电器： 240伏特交流电50赫 电话： 长途电话国家号码： 44 地区字头： 伯明翰- 121、吉域- 1293、希斯路- 208、伦敦-
207、曼彻斯特- 161 办公时间： 商店之营业时间没有一定准则， 一般时间如下： 星期一至六：9:00AM
~5:30PM 星期日：10:00AM~4:00PM 银行营业时间： 星期一至五：9:30AM
~3:30PM；有些银行会在星期六早上开启。 伦 敦 的 四 季 春 spring 伦敦处于较高纬度区，春天的来访也就较晚。3月和4月，气温仍然偏低，只有番红花 和水仙在争奇斗妍。不过，每逢3月，泰晤士河上牛津大学和剑桥大学举行的划船传统赛事 ；4 月，河对岸的巴特西公园的复活节演出，仍会令人大饱眼福。 不知不觉间到了5月。一 时间，整个世界几乎都迎来了春天。人们开始变得兴高采烈， 周围的色彩也聚然丰富起来 。本来，"五一"就是欢庆春天到来的节日。 5月与6月是伦敦最美的季节，就算只留在这儿 ，哪儿也不去，也不会觉得可惜。当然， 此时的伦敦正逢繁花似锦。5月中旬的切尔西花 展，其场面之艳丽壮观令人咋舌。在郊外， 世界著名的基尤植物园中也是百花齐放，五彩 斑斓。到郊外的住宅区走一走，您会看到粉色的石楠花和黄色的金链花在绿色中奏出动人 旋律；五彩缤纷的花朵经爱好园艺的英国人的精心培育竞相绽放，令人悦目赏心。 天气好 ，各种仪式活动也就格外多起来了。6月初，在女王生日那天举行军旗分列式， 女王骑马 检阅近卫队。好些试图一睹女王风姿的人们前拥后挤，练兵场的入场券都很难买到。德比 、奥克斯、阿斯科特等著名的赛马会也都于5月至6月间开赛。在阿斯科特展现的新颖女性 时装展示会引起的话题刚刚平静下去，温布尔登网球场又将引起全球网球迷的注目。待温 布尔登赛的冠军产生，夏天也马上就来了。 夏 summer 英国的夏天，白尽相当长。到了晚上9点，天还是明亮亮的。伦敦的气温很少超过30 ℃ ，而且湿度不大。伦敦的夏天没有什么令人难以忍受的，很快就可以过去了。 在我们看 来，英国人对于阳光的憧憬与向往异常强烈。在伦敦众多的大小公园里，一到午休时间， 便随处可见男女老少身着泳装在草地上休憩。他们也不用防晒膏之类的防护用品，只是一 个劲儿地吸收阳光。他们坚信，清风与阳光才是包治百病的秘方。如果想要一睹英国女郎 身着比基尼的风姿，不用去海岸或泳池，在公园里便足够了。在那些进行日光浴人们的旁 边，草地板球正热火朝天。在草地上插好"三柱门"，用坚硬的球拍击球，弹性很大的球到处 横飞，引来一阵阵欢声笑语。 实际上，夏天是板球比赛的季节，国内或国际大赛不断举行 。许多人无法直接去劳德法七奥威尔球场，便盯在电视前面亦喜亦忧地看转播。一场板球 比赛常持续3天或5天，令人愕然! 夏季的各种活动中不能错过的是阿尔伯特音乐厅举行的长 在两个月的古典音乐会。入场费便宜得令人吃惊，音乐会的水平又非常高，听众多为青年 男女。特别是在最后一天，听众们还会一起合唱可以称为第二国歌的"Rule
Britannia"，场 面十分热烈。 当然自不用说，夏天还是旅游旺季。伦敦人会休上几周的假期。有时驾上露 营车去苏格兰或湖区游览；有的全家人一起去西班牙或意大利的海滨疗养；还有的年轻人 ，一个人或与朋友一起去欧洲大陆或美国逍遥一番。但是，与去外面旅行的伦敦人相比， 还是到伦敦来游览的客人要多得多。观光胜地和商业街里，到处都是游客，每个店铺都迎 来了销售旺季。 秋 autumn 当游客急剧减少，商业街的客流也逐渐变小的时候，秋天便来了。新学期开始，中小 学校内又能听到孩子们的欢声笑语，操场上又能见到他们踢足球的活泼身影了。在伦敦的 公园和近郊，几乎看不到通红的秋叶，树木多是转成了黄色或褐色。但毕竟与满目皆翠的 夏天不同，秋天的伦敦开始显露几分略带感伤和静谧的风情。日趋渐凉的黄昏， 路上的年 青人吃着炒栗子和烤肉串。许多人则在小酒店里用啤酒来消除一天工作后的疲倦。白天越 来越短，到了10月末，从3月末开始实施的夏时制便结束了。时针要拨慢1个小时。将近11 月，街上时不时会有孩子来乞讨一点小钱。性急的人一定会认为这是因为英国的儿童乞丐 增多了。其实不然，11月5日是"盖佛克斯节"。在这一天，孩子们要做人偶。这笔费用是可 以向陌生人乞讨的。节目当天，热心的参加者要扛着人偶在城内游行，晚上则在广场烧毁 。同时燃放烟花，大家一起欢乐。但是，由于时常有烧伤的孩子和小火灾，最的伦 敦指定 了几个特别许可的广场，在那里由成人监管进行这项活动。
11月中旬的星期六，新的伦敦 市长将举行就职游行。所谓伦敦市长是指伦敦城区的市长，现在只不地是个名誉职位而已 。不过，游行的场面还是十分壮观的，吸引了在批游客。这也是伦敦秋天著名的风景之一 。 冬 winter 说起冬天的伦敦，人们马上会联想到"雾都"这一景象。确实，城市为伸手不见五指的 浓雾所掩盖，由此而使人丧命的事情在过去并不稀罕。这种烟雾的元凶便是各家各户取暖 的煤炭所释放的烟尘。自从政府推行集中供暖，禁止使用无烟煤以外的煤炭以来，烟雾危 害便极少发生了。当然，还是会下雾的，只不过这雾和其他地方相比也没什么区别"雾都"只 是过去的伦敦了。与夏天相反，冬日白昼较短，天又经常阴沉沉的，伦敦显得既寒冷又忧 郁。此时，最大的快乐就是圣诞节了。街道都装饰得漂亮动人，商店也都挂起了"减价"的牌 子，挑逗着人们的购买欲。在特拉法尔加广场，每年都有从奥斯陆送来的枞树，装上彩虹 ，吸引人们前来同唱圣诞颂歌。家庭主妇们精心制作圣诞布丁，孩子们则翘首企盼各地寄 来的礼物和贺卡。当然，也有不少孩子由家人带领去观赏上演时间长达一个月的芭蕾舞剧 《胡桃夹子》。 除夕夜，年轻人将特拉法尔加广场挤得满满的，在躁动与兴奋中迎接新的 一年。但是，要等到春天的到来，还必须忍耐很久。伦敦的冬天太长了。 伦 敦 的 交 通 地铁、公共汽车和出租车，都是伦敦有名的交通工具。当您漫游伦敦之际，它们会给 您 带来极大的便利。其中最令外地游客跃跃欲试的是红色双层巴士。对于普遍游客来说， 似乎巴士总是会把自己带到令人莫名其妙的地方，于是乎对其也就敬而远之。不过，如果 能对堵车熟视无睹， 那么就没有什么能比乘公共汽车更方便更令人惬意的了。如果您习惯 于乘坐公共汽车且对线路了如指掌，那您就是地地道道的伦敦人了。当然，并非是说"乘出 租太奢侈了"，只是想鼓励您坐上一次伦敦的公共汽车，算是留个纪念。 红脸庞的市民之足--巴士Bus 赤红的双层巴士是伦敦的像征之一。 过去，当公共马车还是人们的主要交通工具的时 候，伦敦人连马车顶上都安置了座位。 爱好保持传统的英国人忠实地遵循了这一惯例，也 就有了这种有趣的好像游乐园中游乐车似的大巴士。没有这种巴士，伦敦会失去很多乐趣 。 ●乘巴士的方法 目前，伦敦有两种巴士穿梭于大街小巷。一种为老式车，乘客由车的尾部上下，车本 身 没有门，在行驶之中也仍然大敞四开。因此，即使没有到站，比如在等绿灯或堵车时， 乘客也可以上上下下!但是请注意，不要强行登车或下车。乘务员虽然默认，但出了事故是 算在个人头上的。此车多行驶于伦敦中心地区。 上了车以后再向乘务员买票。当然要告诉 对方自己的目的地，还可以请乘务员到站时提 醒自己。当然每到一站时，乘务员是会大声 报出站名的。 如果您知道下车的站名，在前一站可以自己去按车门口的红色按钮，告诉司 机下一站停车。不过，一般每个车站都有上下车的乘客，也不必太在意去按。 第二种便是 新式的巴士，司售人员只有一人。前门上车后从司机那儿买票，再从后门下车。门为自动 的，不像旧式车那样随时可下。车上有数个红色按钮，可以用来通知司机自己的目的地。 对何时到目的地不详的乘客，可以求助于司机。当然，最好坐在司机师傅旁边啦
! ●巴士的种类 原则上讲，旧式巴士的一层可站5人，新式车也不过20人。二层摆动较为剧烈，不许 站立；这也是传统的规定。上下班时常会出现满员的现象。无论怎样着急，满员车也是上 不去的。 巴士常常因为堵车而误点，甚至有时也会出现等待了30分钟或更长以后，一下子 来2～3 辆车的情况。巴士内严禁吸烟，违反了这一规定罚金相当高。 此外，还有实行单一 票价的单人司乘巴士及红箭巴士在伦敦中心运营。 ●巴士车站 车站有两种，一种是巴士到站必停(除了满员车以外)，一种是必须举手示意(要掌握好 时机)才停。站台上对其均有不同的标示。 英国人等车时自然也要排队。但排在前面的人不 一定乘坐同一路车。如果不在队中举手示意，有的车会直接开过去的。此外，在英国，人 们习惯于把手伸直向前示意。
圆脸庞的市民之足--地铁Underground 伦敦地铁俗称"特乌布"(Tube)，意即试管、管道。确实，这里的隧道是圆形的，也因 此得到这"特乌布"之美称。况且，在圆形隧道里穿行的同样也是脑壳圆圆，脸庞圆圆的车辆 ，真是名副其实。 英国的产业革命是世界上最早开始的，伦敦的地铁就也是世界上最早的 了。它于1870年 诞生，20年之后改换为电力机车。百多年来，伦敦地铁运送过的乘客如天 上的繁星，数不胜 数。 以如此悠久的历史为自豪，伦敦的地铁想必一定很漂亮吧。您要这 么想，亲眼见到之后就会小吃一惊了。站台总显得灰暗，有些脏，与其说是地铁，不如说 更像地窖。车厢地板和 窗框多为木制板材(最近也增添了一些漂亮的新型车)，令人意外。 为"时光"所磨炼的黑亮 亮的木板，以及完全裸露在外的电缆，也不能不说是传统的一种表 现吧。 ●地铁的乘坐方法 买票在地下通道中，如果您发现了地下铁路的标志，那里便是入口处。当您身上没有 零钱或想要购买旅行卡(一日卡除外)时，可以到售票窗口去。但是，在上下班高峰时期，您 就不得不耐心地去排长队了。买票时只要报出目的地站名或旅行卡是几区的便可以了。熟 悉地铁的人可以不报站名，而只说"￡1.1，Please"，即报一下票价就可以了。 自动售票机 如果您身上有零钱，最好去自支售票机买票。售票机很多，常有空位。如果机器里有 零钱找的话，就会显示"Change
Given"，如果机器不能找零钱，就会在上半部分用红字显 示出"Exact
Money Only"。所有的自动售票机均可使用5P、10P、20P、50P和￡1的硬币 。 售票机要数那种既可以售票，又可以售旅游卡的为最多。售卡的按钮和以区域来划发的
按纽并排在一起。按一下自己的目的地所在区域的那个钮，售票机便会显示出票价，然后 把币投进去，便会自动送出票或零钱来。 伦敦主要的观光点大都在1区之内。售票处也有 哪一站位于哪一区之类的说明，但不易看清。最好事先查看一下有区域划分的地铁路线图 。 还有一种机器上面排列的全是站名。看一会儿便会让人眼花缭乱了。不过，如果非常清 楚目的地的站名，使用起来也并不困难。遵循"1
Select Ticket Type"是指示，从蓝色按钮 中选出自己需要票种的按下。接着"2
Select Station or zone"的指示，选择自己的目 的站的 按钮按下，此时售票机就会显示出票价。然后投进币，票和零钱就会自动送出来。自动售 票机也出售去伦敦近郊的火车票。
●检票口 伦敦地铁为自动检票，旅游卡也一样通行。但是，请不要忘记取出已放入检票机的车 票或旅游卡。取票口位于检票机栏杆之前，不在此取出票，栏杆就不会放开。 ●站台 伦敦地铁的站台上只有谈站站名，没有国内地铁那种"开往～方向"及下一站站名之类 的标示。不过在通道及电动扶梯(有些站还有电梯间)附近都有路线图，可以按颜色找到自己 要乘坐的路线，并顺此线的指示乘车。路线图分为"Eastbound"(向东方面)、"Westbound "( 向西方面)、"South bound"(向南方面)、"Northbound"(向北方面)等，在此弄清自己要去的 站在哪一方面，然后再走。否则经过长长的通道和长长的电梯，好不容易才到了， 一看， 站台方向错了!恐怕会令人哭笑不得。 ●乘车 地铁车辆大多数为自动门，但要注意，有的是需要客人自己按按钮的，按钮上标有"Push
to Open"的字样。车内基本上没有广播，但张贴有路线图。您也可以随身带一份，一边看图 ，一边确认到站是否是自己的目的地。 ●出口 到达目的地的车站后，追寻写有黄字"出口"(Way out)的标志到检票口，由此出去即可 。 如何更熟练地利用地铁与巴士
首先要买一张伦敦游览图"Travelling
in London"。该图上标有地铁与巴士的路线， 在 希斯罗机场、维多利亚火车站、匹卡德利站等许多旅游眯的咨询处均有出售。 要乘巴士， 最好先习惯一下地图背面的巴士系统图的读识方法。巴士的路线编号均注在图上的圆括号 内，需要依次来寻找该线路巴士都经过哪些地区。如果知道了该怎样乘车，便 可由饭店到 市内各主要街道，那么在伦敦的生活就丰富有趣得多了。关于夜班车，在免费资料手册《 伦敦中央巴士图》(Central
Bus London Map)及《夜游神们的巴士》(Buses
for Night Owls)中均有介绍。如果想乘巴士逛遍大伦敦，最好有一份《大伦敦巴士路线图》(Wide
Bus Map)。伦敦有许多非常方便的巴士，有了它们您在伦敦观光就如虎添翼了。旅行卡虽 然是上下班人们使用的月票，但只要有4cm×3cm大小的照片，谁都可以在地铁售票窗口买 到这种旅行卡。有了它便可以随便乘坐地铁与巴士，有效期限分为1周、1月、1年等若干种 。此外，在主要地铁站拍摄快像约￡2.50。 全日旅游卡 平时一般从早上9∶30开始使用， 周末及节日全天通用。可随便乘坐地铁与巴士。从希斯罗机场到匹卡德利广场普通票需要 ￡3.90，所以用全日卡要实惠得多。不需要片。地铁的自动售票机有售。夜晚乘出租车是 要慎重. 1992年，英国接连发生了两起出租车司机行凶事件。虽然从那以后没再发生过类 似案件，但人们仍然感叹到：连出租车司机都不能信赖了。深夜不得不乘出租的时候，一 定要确认司机是否在车上贴有椭圆形的许可证。 黑脸庞的市民之足--出租车Taxi 在保留着浓厚的传统气氛的伦敦街头，黑色的出租车倒也显得十分合适。它们不紧不 慢 地驶来驶去，自有一种古雅的风韵。 盛装打扮的绅士与淑女们乘坐黑色出租车来到剧院 或音乐厅，一位身着晚礼服的侍应生便会马上走上前打开车门，笑盈盈地迎接客人。这种 电影场景在如今的伦敦依然可以看到。 ●出租车的乘坐方法 在机场、车站的出租车站及街道上的车流里，均可以叫到出租。只要车项上的灯及助 手席旁的"FOR
HIRE"灯均亮着，那么就说明此车正待客出租。 助手席的玻璃放下后，向司 机讲明自己的目的地，然后再坐到后座。助手席虽有两个座 ，总共可乘坐5人，但通常最 多坐4个人。司机席与客席有玻璃相隔，可以安心地说些悄悄话 。仅此也透露出绅士国度 的风度。 车价在计价器上表示，到了站后一般要在原车价上再附加10%左右的小费。 租车 起价为￡1.00，此后依里程来计算。此外，还要依据人数、行李数、宠物数(因司机而定)， 再另外加收费用。晚上要附加夜车费，周末及节目也要加费。附加收费并不在计价器上显 示。下车后，由助手席窗口付车钱。 历 史 的 消 亡 --英国史前巨石阵曾人为修建 英国对史前巨石阵进行的修补工作近日引起了很多人的注意。英国文物协会已经开始 考虑重新撰写有关这个英国最为著名的史前纪念碑的参观指南。去年，曾有一百万个参观 者到访索尔兹伯里(Salisbury)平原，来赞美这个他们认为 是从未被触摸过的具有4000年历史的史前圣殿。但当 时,官方提供的旅行指南上，并没有告诉他们，那里的 每一块石头实际上都是被重新竖起来的，它们都经过了 现代人进行的重新整理和安置工作。一些原本出于好意 的修补人员在1901年至1964年之间就曾对这座史前纪念碑进行过多次的修补和加固。
史前巨石阵曾被重新修建这一消息，是由一个博士生布来恩-爱德华兹揭露出来的，当 时他正在布里斯托尔(Bristol，英国南部港口)西部的大学里攻读他的博士学位。20世纪60年 代，英国威尔特郡(Wiltshire)的爱威伯里石碑就曾被重新竖起过，布来恩对这一事情进行了 调查，之后，他将注意力转向了索尔兹伯里的巨石阵。他曾指出，现在的爱威伯里石碑实 际上是考古学家亚历山大-库勒(Alexander Keiller)对其进行的重新修建。尽管巨石阵没有像 爱威伯里石碑那样被大规模的重建，但是通过约翰-康斯特伯尔(John Constable)在1835年 绘制的油画，可以很清楚地看出巨石阵被重新修建的痕迹。 爱德华兹将他的发现写进了他最近出版的一本教科书中，这本书的名字为《看历史》 ，现在已经作为英国的公共历史课教材使用。书中这样说到：“我们在20世纪看到这一石碑 ，虽然看起来像是几千年前建立的，但实际上这是现代文物部门工作的结果，而不是史前 人类做出来的东西了。我们现在看到的巨石阵历史还没有超过50年。史前巨石阵作为一段 历史已经永远消失，真正的历史也离我们远去了。”而当人们参观这一巨石阵时，无论是官 方的旅行指南还是游人能够用到的磁带录音指南都没有提到有关该文物曾被重新修补过的 任何细节。在爱德华兹出版了他的教科书后，英国文物协会称，该部门将考虑把巨石阵重 新修建的更多细节添加到旅行指南中。(雨来) 英 国 饮 食 英国是属于西欧各国其中之一，它的地理位置于欧陆西侧的大西洋上，其纬度在50度 以北，因受北大西洋洋流的调节及西风终年的吹拂，成为冬暖夏凉，终年有雨的温带海洋 性气候。主要发展有：栽种饲料作物及牧草，并发展酪农业，但是，由於其本身的食粮及 畜牧产品均不足以自给，需要依赖进口，因此，使其在料理烹调上多少都受到外来资讯的 响影。不过，英国本身是个历史、文化悠久的国家，所以他们在料理上多少还是保留了原 有的传统饮食习惯及烹调技于巧。 英国人一般较喜爱的烹饪方式有：烩、烧烤、煎和油炸。对肉类、海鲜、野味的烹调 均有独到的方式；然而，他们对牛肉类方面又有特别的偏好，如烧烤牛肉（ROASTED
BEEF），在食用时不仅附上时令的蔬菜、烤洋芋，还会在牛排上加上少许的芥茉酱；在佐 料的使用上则喜好奶油及酒类；在香料上则喜好肉寇、肉桂等新鲜香料。 较为人知的英国料理菜名有：牛肉腰子派（STEAK
KIDNEY PIE）、炸鱼排（ENGLISH
FISH CHIP）、皇家奶油鸡（CHICKEN A LA KING）等。英国 人喜欢狩猎，在一年只有一次的狩猎期中，就有许多的饭店或餐厅会推出野味大餐，如野 鹿（VENISON）、野兔（HARE）、雉鸡（PHEASANT）、野山羊（WILDSHEEP）等的烹 调。而一般烹调野味时，均采用些杜松子或浆果及酒，此做法是为了去除食物本身的膻腥 味。 英国人对早餐非常讲究！英国餐馆中所供应的餐点种类繁多，有果汁、水果、蛋类、 肉类、麦粥类、面包、果酱及咖啡等。 时下所流行的下午茶（HIGH
TEA）也是传来自于英 国，其较知名的有维多莉亚式VICTORIAN
STYLE），内容可说是包罗万象，包括各式小点 、松糕、水果挞（TARTE）及三明治等。 晚餐对英国人来说也是日常生活中最重要的一部 份，他们选择的用餐时间通常较晚，而且都是边吃边喝边聊，以促进用餐人之间的情谊， 可想见他们是属于极有自主性的民族，而一顿晚餐对他们来说可能要花上好几个钟头！
苏格兰威士忌或琴酒都是这些众有皆知的酒均来自于它。在英国当地，会有许多爱好 喝的人士，主要是因为：它本身也是个产酒国家。英国人在饮酒上的花费比起其它的支出 还来的多。 英 国 菜 英国是属于西欧各国其中之一，它的地理位置于欧陆西侧的大西洋上，其纬度在50度N 以北，因受北大西洋洋流的调节及西风终年的吹拂，成为冬暖夏凉，终年有雨的温带海洋 性气候。主要发展有：栽种饲料作物及牧草，并发展酪农业，但是，由於其本身的食粮及 畜牧产品均不足以自给，需要依赖进口，因此，使其在料理烹调上多少都受到外来资讯的 响影。不过，英国本身是个历史、文化悠久的国家，所以他们在料理上多少还是保留了原 有的传统饮食习惯及烹调技于巧。 照理来说：英国人一般较喜爱的烹饪方式有：烩、烧烤、煎和 油炸。对肉类、海鲜 、野味的烹调均有独到的方式；然而，他们 对牛肉类方面又有特别的偏好，如烧烤牛肉 （ROASTED BEEF）， 在食用时不仅附上时令的蔬菜、烤洋芋，还会在牛排上加上少许 的芥茉酱；在佐料的使用上则喜好奶油及酒类；在香料上则喜好肉寇、肉桂等新鲜香料 。 较为人知的英国料理菜名有：牛肉腰子派（STEAK
KIDNEY PIE）、炸鱼排（ENGLISH
FISH CHIP）、皇家奶油鸡（CHICKEN A LA KING）等。英国 人喜欢狩猎，在一年只有一次的狩猎期中，就有许多的饭店或餐厅会推出野味大餐，如野 鹿（VENISON）、野兔（HARE）、雉鸡（PHEASANT）、野山羊（WILDSHEEP）等的烹 调。而一般烹调野味时，均采用些杜松子或浆果及酒，此做法是为了去除食物本身的膻腥 味。 他们对早餐可是非常的讲究哦！英国餐馆中所供应的餐点种类繁多，有果汁、水果、 蛋类、肉类、麦粥类、面包、果酱及咖啡等。
而时下所流行的下午茶（HIGH
TEA）也是传来自于英国，其较知名的有维多莉亚式VICTORIAN
STYLE），内容可说是包 罗万象，包括各式小点、松糕、水果挞（TARTE）及三明治等。 想当然，晚餐对英国人来说也是日常生活中最重要的一部份，他们选择的用餐时间通 常较晚，而且都是边吃边喝边聊，以促进用餐人之间的情谊，可想见他们是属于极有自主 性的民族，而一顿晚餐对他们来说可能要花上好几个钟头！ 苏格兰威士忌或琴酒都是这些众有皆知的酒均来自于它。在英国当地，会有许多爱好 喝的人士，主要是因为：它本身也是个产酒国家。 您知道吗：英国人在饮酒上的花费比起其它的支出还来的多。
英 国 的 婚 礼 习 俗 英格兰人的婚俗丰富多采，从求婚到度蜜月均按自已的传统方式进行。在英格兰北部 约克市求婚方式颇为奇特，继承了古代民间遗风，女孩子成熟以后，需要出嫁了，便穿上 不同颜色的紧身服饰，向男性示意。不同的颜色表示不同的意思，恰恰和交通信号灯一致 。绿色的表示："来吧！我愿意恋爱，大胆地追求吧！"黄色表示："机遇是有的，如果合我 的意还是有成功的机会。"红色表示："目前我还不想谈情说爱，不要追求我。"勇敢的小伙 子会根据对方的服色，根据自已的选择去大胆地追求，决不会被扣上行为不端的帽子。 一旦双方确立了恋爱关系，男方要送给女方订婚戒指并举行仪式。这种习俗遍及整个 英国。结婚或定婚戒指是许多民族的传统习俗，英格兰人在教堂里举行婚礼仪式时，新郎 给新娘戴戒指是不可缺少的一项重要内容。人们甚至认为不戴戒指的婚姻是无效的。当神 父询问一对新人是否愿意做对方的妻子或丈夫、能否相互尊重、白头偕老后，新郎给新娘 的无名指上戴上一枚戒指。它象征着丈夫对妻子的纯真爱情，同时妻子也表示接受并忠实 于这种爱情。 戴戒指的习俗可以追溯到古代埃及、中国，它不仅作为一种信物也是一种装饰品。婚 姻戒指最初并不镶嵌钻石、翡翠以及红蓝宝石等饰物，纯洁的圆形象征着由婚姻联袂在一 起的两个人的团圆。在一些民族中象征着一种魔力，保佑夫妇幸福长寿，同时，施予者表 示对接受者的信任，接受者表示对施予者的忠诚。 金戒指象征爱情的纯真，银戒指意味情感温柔。英国人同西方各国一样，定婚戒指是金 制的而不镶嵌任何宝石，结婚戒指应加装饰物，至于戒指的质量则根据个人的经济条件不 同而不同。定婚、结婚戒指可戴在同一无名指上，也可以由结婚戒指取代定婚戒指。 英国在16世纪时，结婚戒指的内侧经常刻是家族的图案或箴言，诸如"上帝使我成为某 某的妻子，"某位主教的妻子的戒指上刻上一只手、一颗心、一顶主教冠和一个骷髅，铭文 是："前三个我赐予你，第四个使我超脱。"今天戒指上的铭文大多只刻上新郎和新娘名字的 开头字母。 英国人结婚要穿礼服；新娘身着白衫、白裙、头戴白色花环，还要罩上长长的白纱， 手持白色花束。总之，英国人崇尚白色，它象征爱情纯洁、吉祥如意。而戴头纱的习俗可 以追溯到公元前10世纪，当时两河流域就已盛行女子戴头纱。在古希腊，举行结婚仪式时 不仅新娘要戴亚麻或毛织品的头纱，而且一对新人都要戴上花冠。到了罗马时代，不同宗 教信仰的人要戴不同颜色的头纱以示区别。中世纪以后，宫廷贵族之中出现了用珍珠装饰 的花冠。尔后，发展成为白色头纱，并且尺码日益延长，并遍及欧洲各地。 一旦举行完婚，新郎新娘从教堂里出来的时候，人们要向新人祝贺，这种祝贺不是亲 吻、拥抱和握手，而是向他们撒五彩缤纷的纸屑。撒纸屑的习俗起源于撒麦粒。1491年英 国国王亨利七世携王后到布里斯托尔旅行。旅行途中，被一位面包师的妻子看到，于是她 从窗子里向他们撒麦粒，并高呼："欢迎你们，陛下！祝你们幸福、长寿。"这成为一段佳话 ，到16世纪时，这一习俗已广为流传，人们向新郎、新娘撒麦粒，有时还染各种颜色。麦 粒象征着丰收和生活富裕，同时也祝贺新婚夫妇幸福长寿，子孙满堂。 度蜜月也是英国各地青年结婚的重要内容之一。他们把积蓄下来的钱用于旅游，而结 婚后去旅游便称作度蜜月。这原是古代的习俗，在新婚之时一定要饮用一种用蜂蜜特制的 饮料，用来象征家庭美满、爱情甜蜜和生活幸福。而这种饮料从结婚开始要喝30天，因此 就把新婚第一个月称作蜜月了。 英 国 人 的 饮 茶 风 俗 自从200多年前茶叶从中国(后又从印度)传入英国之后,饮茶一直被英国人看作是一种悠 闲和舒达的享受。最早运送茶叶到英国的那种快速高桅帆船便叫作"茶叶飞剪"号。 在英国的家庭中,"我把茶壶坐上了! "是一句对忙碌一天,疲倦归家的主人极好的关切话语. 英国家庭最习惯的欢迎客人的话也是:"我把茶壶坐上吧,你一定得喝一杯茶"。茶叶刚传到英 国的时候,价格很昂贵,只有富人才喝得起。后来随着包装和运输的改善,到本世纪初,饮茶已 成为人们的日常习惯。 英国人沏茶有许多规矩,由于英国一年中大半时间是寒冷季节,所以习惯在置茶前烫壶,而 且沏茶的水一定要煮沸,并马上冲进壶中,否则就认为泡出的茶不香。英国家庭中常用的一种 小匙,就称为"茶匙"。放茶叶的数量通常是每位饮者一匙茶叶,另再加一匙作为"壶底消耗"。 冲泡出的茶水也有许多名称,其中有些是地方俗语如：茶汁、茶汤、茶液、茶浆等。 英国人 饮茶浓淡各有所好,但一般爱在茶汤中加牛奶。而在欧洲大陆国家,习惯饮用清茶,茶具也多 使用玻璃杯而不是瓷杯,有时还要放上一片柠檬,这在英国是较少见的。只有在某些特色餐馆 里才喝得到柠檬茶。 瓷器工业的发展,带来了茶具的多次演变。18世纪,妇女们用碟子吃茶,后来改用杯子,茶杯 由原先无柄的变成有柄的那种,有时杯口还带有一条窄的瓷楫,以避免那些时髦绅士的胡须泡 进茶杯里去,这种杯子在19世纪末至20世纪初是极为流行的。现在，在英国也可见到供非正 式场合用的大茶杯,但都不带杯盖,带盖子的大茶杯只有在英国少数大城市的中国商店里才能 见到。这种带把手的大瓷杯,正逐渐代替酒吧里的大啤酒杯而兴起。与此同时,体现都市快节 奏生活的饮茶方式一一袋泡茶也越来越受到人们的欢迎。茶壶被闲置在一边,只有少数墨守 成规的保守派,仍喜欢那种用壶泡饮的方式。 过去那种在正规社交中常见的"下午茶"习惯,现在已不多见。但在家庭、办公室、学校以 及建筑工地等场所.每天下午三点半左右都还少不了要喝一次茶。而英国人所说的"tea
time",是指那种比较正规的茶点小吃，多半是在下午主妇们有空闲时,邀几位朋友一起度过一 个轻松愉快的下午。一般都是客人们坐在舒适的椅子上围成一圈,手捧茶碟和茶杯,饮着佳茗 ,佐以精致的点,心,这也许就是英国人翻版的日本茶道吧。这种休闲的饮茶方式在英国比较 富裕的南方很是普遍,而在英格兰北部以及苏格兰和大部分威尔士这些传统的重工业、矿山 、船厂以及农庄地区,就不那么流行了。在北方,喝茶往往同吃饭一起进行。下午六点钟左右 ,在外干了一天活的人们回到家,全家就以一壶热茶加一道热菜、面包、糕饼、或者水果点心 来充饥。这种"茶餐",常常叫作"台茶(high
tea) "。这和普通的饮茶小吃是不同的。 二次大战(1939~1945年)以后,英国人的生活习惯有了许多改变,饮茶习俗也不例外。年青 人带入了欧洲大陆和美国的习惯,喝咖啡渐渐流行起来。饮料商们也开发出了各种品牌的速 溶咖啡,在商店、超市的货架上以及电视广告中随处可见,影响了大批英国人的生活习惯。过 去的"休息喝茶"(tea break)也渐渐被"休息喝咖啡"(coffee break)所代替。70年代以来,在伦 敦已很少有可以坐下来喝杯茶、吃些小点心的场所了。不过这几年这种习气渐渐有了改变, 而且喜欢喝茶的也大有人在。 在英国有一个传统的老习惯,就是在清早给客人送上一杯早茶,在家中这是唤醒客人的最好 方法,顺便还可询问客人的就寝情况,以表关心。在不少英国家庭中,特别是对于家庭中的成 年人,这种早茶习惯被视为是一种享受,但多用在非工作日或周末的早晨,尤其是有些丈夫常 用它来讨好太太。为了方便喝早茶,英国的"高步林"公司,创制了一种灵巧的产品一一"茶婆子 "(Teasmade)。它由一个小钟、一个小台灯和一把煮开水的小壶组成。只要头天晚上预先 在茶壶中注入水,并把茶叶放在茶杯中,到预定时间,壶中的水就会自动煮开,随着小壶便自动 倾倒开水至杯中。茶冲泡好以后,闹钟便响了,台灯也自动打开,就等主人喝早茶了。 由于茶婆子实用、灵巧,现在不少家庭还珍藏着呢! 在战争年代,由于运输不便,英国茶叶很 是缺乏,而现在,各种高级的特色茶随处可见。餐馆中有各色茶叶供选择,如大吉岭、阿萨姆 以及"格雷伯爵"茶等。不少餐馆也供应茉莉花茶,许多顾客都很喜欢。但至于真正的龙井茶 或云南红茶,人们仍很生疏,能真正懂得欣赏和品饮的人则更少了。 英 国 思 维 以前到过欧洲大陆，不管是法国人、德国人，还是荷兰、比利时、意大利人，都穿得 十分随便，很少有人衣冠楚楚地穿西装。可是这次一到英国，发现那里却是例外。伦敦街 头到处可见西装革履的英国人，慢条斯理、心无旁骛，走起路来一副绅士派头，自我感觉 特别好。我的一位住在伦敦的朋友告诉我，有一次他请他的英国邻居到他家来吃顿便饭， 不料那一家子来时男的西装笔挺。女的浓妆艳抹，使他着实地吃了一惊。不就是隔壁邻居 过来吃顿便饭，干吗这么正规？不想英国人自有他的道理，他说："万一你还请了其他客人 ，我随随便便进来，人家就会想，你怎么交了这么个没有礼貌不懂规矩的人当朋友，岂不 影响了你的声誉？"这是英国人的思维。 我的那位朋友告诉我他刚工作时的一件事，说是英国人每天上午10时要休息一刻钟来 喝咖啡，单位里有一位年轻的女服务员负责煮咖啡和倒咖啡，因为人多，她显然有些忙不 过来，我的那位朋友就主动帮她，她没有道谢反而有些不高兴。第二天，他照例又去帮她 ，那服务员就说："我的工作就是倒咖啡，你也来倒，不是正说明我没有能力胜任这份工作 ，我该被老板炒鱿鱼？" 伦敦塔其实不是塔，而是一座小城堡，这里是英国早年的皇宫。皇宫搬到白金汉宫后 ，照我们的习惯这里应当成为博物馆或纪念馆，想不到它的下一个用途却是成为动物园。 动物园搬迁后又成了造币厂，再以后就成为了监狱，现在监狱又搬了，这地方又成了珠宝 馆，这里面有什么内容的联系？以我们的思维来看，这是一条杂乱无章的逻辑线，没有任 何道理。可是在英国人看来，这是一条杂乱无章的罗辑线，没有任何道理。可是在英国人 看来，这是再明白不过的事情，因为这5种用途有一共同的特点，那就是都需要严格的保卫 和看守，才不会出问题。要不然，皇上会不安全，野兽会逃出来伤人，钱币会被盗，罪犯 会越狱，珍宝也有失窃的危险，只有伦敦塔这座坚固的城堡，才能胜任这些项目的功能要 求。 英 国 人 的 饮 食 习 惯 早餐 传统的英式早餐有煎培根、香肠和煎土司。这叫做“煎食”。但现在多数人都很忙，没办 法每天都吃这种丰盛的早餐，所以现在最流行的早餐种类有： ·一碗玉米片加牛奶； ·一些优格加新鲜水果； ·土司涂果酱，通常在早餐时喝茶、咖啡、或果汁。 英国人仍在周未享用传统的英式早餐。各个旅馆或饭店，尤其是大家所熟知的家庭式 旅馆(B&B's)皆有供应传统的英式早餐。 午餐 英国人的中餐很快就解决，不像意大利人。通常午餐只需三十到四十分钟，许多英国 人吃三明治，或许是因为三明治是英国发明的。通常人们早上在家做好三明治，然后在午 餐时间食用，三明治是英国人的便当。同样受欢迎的午餐为烤马铃薯。 点心在英国相当普遍，特别是巧克力，且特别在早上约十一点和下午三点。英国儿童 是世界上吃甜食最甚者，这使得英国牙医非常忙碌。 晚餐 晚餐是一天中的主餐，且通常有两道菜--肉或鱼加蔬菜，之后有甜点（也就是布丁）。 英国小孩都知道在吃布丁前要把肉和蔬菜吃光光。 冷冻熟食在英国相当普遍，几乎每个家庭都有微波炉，且通常英国人（尤其是学生会 买一份冷冻熟食，放进微波炉，边看电视边吃--这叫做吃“电视晚餐”。 外国食物也相当受英国欢迎。超市里摆满了琳琅满目的印式、中式、意式、希腊式和 日式食物--事实上是来自世界各地的食品。 晚餐后通常要来上一杯茶（当然要加牛奶！） 超 市 概 况 英国的大型超级市场非常多，是国人购买食物和日常用品的主要场所.在英国的留学生,一 周至少会去一次超级市场。超级市场的规模都很大,商品非常全.连锁的超级市场遍布全国, 在每个城市小镇都可以找到大型的超级市场.可以买到蔬菜,水果,调味品,肉类,牛奶制品,即食 食品,各国的地方食物和店内现时生产的面包和沙拉等.还有鲜花,文具,杂志,厨具,唱片,电视 机甚至电脑.虽然与美国的超级市场相比稍显逊色,但足可以买到你需要的几乎任何日用品和 食品.与英国5点钟就关门的商店相比,9店或10点关门的超级市场就更具优势.现在有些超级 市场甚至24小时营业. 英国最著名和最大规模的超级市场是:Tesco,
Safeway, J Sainsbury, ASDA以及专卖冷 冻食物的Iceland.他们的分店遍布全国每一个角落,像Tesco还提供贷款,保险,汽车,信用卡等 服务并经营着许多加油站. 一般的营业时间: 视乎你所住的地区,营业时间会有不同.但一般的是周一至周五9:00至21:00或22:00.周 六8:30至20:00或21:00.周日10:00至15:00或16:00.圣诞节前可能会延长时间,但圣诞节中或 是复活节中会停业几天. 经常变动的价格与特价商品: 英国超级市场的货物的价格是经常变动的.每天晚上全国的连锁店会将当天的销售记录 Upload(上传)到总部的电脑中,电脑经过几小时的大量计算,估计出第二天的每一家分店的每 一种货品的需要量并决定对某些商品降价.自动化的货存控制使价格经常发生变动,几乎每天 都有不同的特价商品.而一家大型的超级市场,仓库小得让人难以置信. 留学生们都会注意店内的特价商品，总是可以省一些钱的。如果某种优惠商品是经常 要用到的(又不会很快过期的),就会趁着优惠的时候多买一点。 超级市场的食物价格 蔬菜: 英国超级市场的蔬菜并不便宜,一小盒几十根beans(青豆)就要约1.70镑(人民币: 25.5元 ).最便宜也是最常见的蔬菜是:tomato(番茄),potato(马铃薯),cauliflower(菜花/野菜花),brocc oli(西兰花/绿菜花)和lettuce(生菜).
水果: 英国最普通的水果是:grapes(提子),orange(橙),strawberry(草莓/士多卑喱),banana(香 蕉),cherry(樱桃/车梨子)等.这些水果相对较为便宜。在超级市场你也可以看到mango(芒果) ,lychee(荔枝)等水果(统称exotic fruit),但价格通常很贵,且并不新鲜. 肉类: 英国人对肉是很讲究的,不同的部位分得清清楚楚,包装在一个个小盒子里.通常牛肉比 猪肉贵,而猪肉又比鸡肉贵.但重要的还是看不同的部位.比如说,牛肉的肉馅如果是腿部的肉 做的会比一般的肉馅贵一倍.和其它东西一样,大盒包装的肉会比小盒包装的相对便宜,这便 是Bigger pack,
Better value的价格哲学. 奶制品: 奶制品大概是英国最便宜又是最好吃的食物.不但是牛奶便宜,与牛奶相关的如巧克力,Y oghurt(酸乳)等也很便宜. 中国食物: 大一点的超级市场,都会有来自各国的食物,当然也少不了中国食物.如果你住的地区,来 的中国学生越多,中国食物也会越多.这便是英国超级市场的Micro market(微观市场调查)的 结果,遍布全国的连锁店并不是卖同样的东西.虽然多数超级市场所卖的中国食物并不是很多 ,但也足以让你眼睛一亮。 付款与奖励 这些大型的超级市场都接受各种信用/借记卡(credit/debit cards)如Visa, Mastercard, Switch, American Express, Solo等.同时他们有自己的会员卡.你只要索取一张会员卡,并在 每次消费是出示,就可以积累分数,分数会换成现金卷或换取免费产品.这是他们保持顾客loya lty(忠实)的办法. 生 活 点 滴 英国文化 人人均知英国文化及历史丰富，同学或曾听闻城西的戏院，皇家剧院，国家艺术馆等 ；但可知道每个英国城市都是个文化中心。每个主要城市均有重要及名闻国际的剧院，博 物馆，艺术馆，例如在爱丁堡之苏格兰皇家博物馆，在贝尔法斯特的博物馆，卡底夫国际 露天剧场。 英国欢迎你 英国是既安全及又令游客向往的地方。 英国治安良好，警察不须携枪。 染病可得到免费医疗。留学生如已注册，修读六个月或以上的课程，可免费享用英国 国民医疗服务（NHS）。且患病的机会不高。 宗教信仰受到尊重及照顾。无论在大城小镇，都会找到宗教、文化背景相同的人，及 敬拜的地方。 英国乃多元文化之地，欢迎不同种族，信仰和肤色的人。无论在大城小镇的街道上， 也不会感到陌生，而各式食肆供应不同国家的菜式。 英 国 交 通 英国铁路及道路网发达。 铁路 英国市际铁路交通比世上任何国家都发达。除了农村腹地，邻近都有火车站。由于英 国铁路发达，且地少人多，你或会感到诧异，从一端到达另一端需时不多。青少年可购买 一年通用的乘车证，且有优惠价。 旅游车 英国道路网四通八达，乘旅游车比火车较廉宜，但需时较长。国家汽车公司提供一种 学生票，十六岁至二十五岁之青少年，可获整年成年票之优惠价。 飞机 在英国，飞机乃为长途旅行而设，从伦敦飞往布里斯托或伯明翰绝不廉宜，但如果从 伦敦飞往格拉斯哥或爱丁堡则可考虑。 若要享受优惠，须出示国际学生证（ISIC），有关申请表格可在学生或学生旅游办事处 索取。 到欧洲旅游 英国与欧洲大陆相连，无论身在英国何处，欧洲各地都近在咫尺。英国有不少到欧洲 大陆的出口，可用下列交通工具： 轮船 差不多从南岸每一个港口可乘轮船，水翼船，汽垫船到法国，比利时及荷兰港口。往 北欧各国航程较长，须从英格兰北部乘船。 火车 新建成之海峡隧道使火车可从伦敦中部之滑铁卢站，直达巴黎或布鲁塞尔之市中心。 旅程只需三小时半。 汽车 火车载汽车经海峡隧道从英国到欧洲大陆去，旅程从英国到法国只需二十五分钟。 飞机 英国每一机场均有班机往返欧洲各主要城市。 渡海交通工具，铁路航空公司之间的竞 争使旅客可以廉宜的价钱，往返欧洲大陆。 英国天气 据说英国人很多时候谈及天气，或许这是事实。英国气候变化很大，由下雪到灿烂阳 光均见，但很少太热或太冷至不能抵受。
英国教育制度
性： 热 英 国 教 育 制 度 英国重视教育。在英国不仅云集了世界上最着名、最古老的学校、学院以及大学，而 且不乏有全新式以及最富创新性的院校。教育是人们讨论的永久性话题…教育不仅是一个 令教师反复思索的问题，而且也令家长以及学生们倍加关注。 教育规定 在英国，所有的人在五岁至十六岁期间均要接受义务教育。这是学生上学的最短期限 。目前，越来越多的儿童在叁、四岁时上幼儿园，而年满十六岁的青少年继续求学的人数 也在逐年上升。教育机构的数目随之骤增，以满足人们求学的需求。 在英国本土的所有四个地区，即英格兰、苏格兰、威尔士以及北爱尔兰，外国留学生 均受欢迎，这四个地区教育结构与院校种类基本相同，但是苏格兰的教育制度在某些方面 则与其他地区有较大不同。 公立学校与私立学校 在英国学校体系实行双轨制： · 公立学校提供免费教育 · 私立学校一般由家长负担学费 在英国大约每十叁个学龄儿童中就有一个进入私立学校学习（确切比例为7%）。年龄 在十六周岁以下的外国学生一般进入私立学校学习。英国共有2,400所私立学校，其中多数 为声名卓着的老牌学校。 英国制定了全国教学大纲--该大纲对儿童在每一个学习阶段所应达到的最低要求作出了 规定。公立学校必须服从教学大纲的要求，而私立学校并不受此限制。但是多数私立学校 在实际教学当中仍然教授全国教学大纲所要求的内容。 十六岁之前的教育 公立学校一般不接纳十六周岁以下的外国学生，因此本节主要介绍私立学校。 。叁至四岁 许多儿童在叁、四岁时便进入幼儿园，或者在幼儿学校的幼儿班接受教育。 。五岁 儿童通常在五岁时进入幼儿学校 。公立制度 儿童在七岁时从幼儿学校升入初级学校。按照公立学校制度，幼儿园与低年级部往往 合并为一所学校（称为小学），供五岁至十一岁儿童就读。 。 私立学校 进入私立学校学习的学生一般在七岁时入读预备学校。 如果是外国学生，则有可能需要在预备学校"寄宿"，即在学校吃住起居、生活学习。与 学生们以往的经历相比，寄宿是一次更为有趣的经历。实际上，一些预备学校正在考虑更 名为"留宿"学校，以体现学生们趣味盎然的寄宿生活。 在预备学校学习的费用一般包括学费、住宿费、膳食费、文具费、课本费、体育音乐 等活动所需的基本设备费用，以及学生向家中打电话的费用。还可能要交付一笔数额较小 的人身意外事故保险金。校服以及运动服亦由家长出资购买。 欢迎外国学生 英国欢迎七岁以上的外国学生在学校寄宿，一些外国学生的家长愿意让自己的孩子在 预备学校接受严格的教育，并且通过住校尽早地参加体育运动以及社交活动 私立制度 预备学校的儿童在十叁岁时即可转入私立中学学习。多数外国学生在这个年龄开始赴 英留学。 私立学校 有些私立中学亦称为"公立学校"。这一名称具有误导性。因为这些学校并非公立，而属 录取自费学生的私立学校。这些学校在几个世纪以前创立之时起名为公立学校，并且一直 延用至今。 认证以及注册 私立学校联合会是私立学校统一组织机构，其成员包括： · 女子学校联合会 · 校长会议 · 预备学校联合会 · 私立学校协会 · 私立学校校长协会 若要获得私立学校联合会的认证，学校必须证明本校已经达到了联合会对于学术、辅 导、财政，以及行政管理等方面所制订的严格标准。但是也是有一些出类拔萃的私立学校 由于多种原因尚未加入联合会。 凡是十六岁以下的学生人数超过五名的私立学校，必须向教育与就业部登记在案，并 且英国督学将到校视察，寄宿学校则由社会事务部进行监督管理。 录取 年满十叁周岁的学生通常需要通过统一入学考试方可进入私立中学就读。一些学校录 取年满十一周岁的学生，从而可以与英国公立教育制度衔接。考试的内容对于各个学校是 统一的，试卷则由学生各自所报考的学校批阅。 一些学校根本不进行考试，而且大多数学校目前认为，统一入学考试并不适用于来自 实行不同教育制度国家的外国学生。学校愿意就入学程序如何适应于外国学生的具体发问 提供咨询。 外国学生入学时往往已经年满十叁岁--例如，修读普通中等教育证书考试高级水平课程 ，从而为入读英国继续教育学院或者高等院校作准备--而大多数学校则录取任何年龄的新生 插班。 寄宿学校 许多私立学校建有住宿设施，以供学生在学习期间在学校留宿。现在越来越多的学生 平时住在学校，每逢周末便回家。但是许多外国学生则要在整个学期之内在学校，当然周 末也不例外。 七岁至十八岁的学生之中，大约有十万人为寄宿生，其中包括在英国私立学校就读的 一万七千外国学生中的大多数人。最近，由私立学校信息服务处进行的一项调查显示，寄 宿生中有四分之叁以上的人喜欢住校。住校使学生有机会深入了解自己的老师，并且能够 更多地参加俱乐部、剧团的活动以及体育运动。 寄宿学校在照顾与辅导学生方面煞费苦心。学校要安排合格的护士值班，并且对于到 达机场以及火车站接待外国学生富有经验。学校还坚持外国学生在英国要有一位监护人， 在其中以及在出现紧急情况时对其进行照顾。如果外国学生在英国没有亲戚或者朋友，私 立学校信息服务处可以代为寻找一位合适的监护人。 考试 所有学生在中学至少要念到十六岁方可参加考试获取普通中等教育证书，在苏格兰则 是苏格兰教育证书、标准等级证书 · 上述考试需要大约两年的准备时间 · 大多数学生学习五至十门科目 十六岁之后的教育 法律规定年满十六周岁的学生可以离开学校开始工作。这是决定学生未来前途的重要 十字路口。 · 您是否想在大学或者大学分校深造？ 若是，您便需要应付更多的考试。 · 您是否已经决定做哪种工作？ 若是，您便需要选读职业培训课程，以取得自己所需要的 资格。 · 您可以留在原校。大多数学校设有大学预科班，学生能够继续在熟悉的环境中学习。 · 可以转至另一所学校修读大学预科班课程。由于此级课程按照专业划分，因此您原来所在 的学校中能没有您想修读的专业，而另一所学校开设了该专业课程。 · 可以就读英国政府资助的预科学院，或者学院（通常被称作继续教育学院）。这些学院一 般规模较大，因此能够开设多种专业课程。 · 可以就读私立预科学院。这些学院的规模小于公立学院。 在一定程度上，您的选择取决于哪一所学校可以提供您想学的课程。 继续教育 继续教育是指学生在十六岁离校之后所接受的教育和培训，英文缩写为FE。英国各地 共有六百多所学院提供继续教育课程。英国学生在十六岁时均应参加普通中等教育证书考 试，以决定他们继续何种学习，或者接受何种培训，有些学生将： · 留在原校继续学习 · 进入学院学习 · 脱离全日制教育，接受在职训练。 大约百分之四十的中学毕业生进入公立继续教育学院或者私立继续教育学院学习。 然而，继续教育学院并非仅仅招收中学毕业生。这些学院也面向其所在的整个社区， 为社区提供教育以及培训服务，并且为下列人士开设课程： · 希望继续接受培训的在职人员 · 希望更换工作或者返校学习的成年人 · 为了充实自己而希望学习新专业或者技术的人。 英国政府负责提供大部分的继续教育课程。政府制定了督学制度，以保证继续教育的 教学质量。一些私立学校也提供十六岁之后的教育课程，大多数为涵盖各种专业的普通中 等教育证书考试高级水平课程，或者是特别为衔接高等教育而设的预备课程。 私立学院并顽强制性的认可学历计划，但是学院可以向英国私立继续教育与高等教育 认可学历评审局提出学历认可申请，或者向私立继续教育联合会申请入会。一个学院若获 得了英国私立继续教育与高等教育认可学历评审局的认证，那么您即可以放心，该学院在 教育质量、教学设备、校舍、辅导与照顾，以及管理等方面均已达到了标准。 大学 高等院校分为以下两类： · 大学，有权授予各级学位。 · 大学分校，少数此类院校可以自行授予学位，而大多数需要通过所属的大学授予学位。 入学要求 普通中等教育证书考试高级水平课程以及补充高级水平课程的成绩目前仍然是大多数 英国大学录取时所要求的入学资格。但是大多数大学或者大学分校也将国际认可大学预科 课程以及国家通用职业资格视为与普通中等教育证书考试高级水平课程等同的资格予以承 认。 某些学生--通常是参加工作之后想继续学业的人员--的情况特殊。但是，只要一个学生 具有相当的学业水平，以及相关的工作经历令校方满意，该生即使尚未取得正式颁发的资 格证书亦可被录取。 如果您未曾在英国接受教育，那么您便需要核查自己所取得的学历相当于英国教育的 哪一级。您也许具有普通中等教育证书考试高级水平同等学历，也许学历较高而可以免读 大学第一年，甚至前两年的课程（称为提前入学），但是这种情形极为罕见。 选择学校 英国有九十所大学以及五十二所学院，所有院校均可向海内外学生颁授高质量的学位 以及证书。 英国所有的大学以及部分学院有权自行颁发学位证书，部分学院可以由其所属大学或 者学院颁发证书。 英国所有的院校均制定明文章程，以保证课程教学高质量、资格证书高标准。此外， 各院校还要接受以下两家机构的严格监督： · 高等教育拨款委员会 · 高等教育质量委员会 高等教育拨款委员会进行外部评估，对某一专业的教学质量予以鉴定，并且发表报告 指出有关教学机构的长处与不足。 高等教育质量委员会就各院校如何向自己以及外部资助者保证课程与证书质量进行外 部审查。审查结果亦将以报刊形式发表。高等教育质量委员会于最近颁布了一项实施细则 ，明确规定了英国院校在与国外在专院校开展合作办学时所应采取的步骤。 以上两家机构于1997年秋季合并，成立了高等教育质量保障局。 除了高等教育质量委员会颁布的实施细则以外，大学校长委员会、英国文化委员会教 育咨询处亦颁布了补充实施细则。所有这些细则有助于保证英国院校更好地进行外国留学 生的招生、接待工作。 院校多元化 英国高等教育学府既享有学历声誉高这一共同点，又各具特色--院校的创建年代相差几 个世纪，各自具有其独特的专长与实力。例如： · 老牌大学建校史长达五多年，而最新开办的学校于1996年9月刚刚成立。 · 位于大城市内的大学多数创建于上个世纪末。 · 一批成立于二十世纪六十年代的大学通常位于开阔的乡村地带，校园占地甚广。这批学校 中多数率先设置了模块单元课程，授予相关专业的学位。 · 最新成立的一批大学以及大学分校多建于1992年。当时，共有叁十所理工学院获准升格 为大学。这些理工学院先后创立于六十年代，主要为本地区学生提供高教育。这些学院能 够获得皇家特许状，表明它们与其他大学的同等地位得到了认可，这些院校通常能够提供 多种职业培训课程。 · 私立大学只有一所，即白金汉大学。该校获得皇家特许状，与其他所有英国高等教育学府 一样拥有颁发高质量学位的资格。 · 一些高等院校专门提供职业培训课程，例如美术设计学院。 享誉学校 英国学历资格在全世界享有极高的声誉，因此将会为您的履历增添光彩。但是您一定 要选择适合自己的院校以及学位课程。请仔细地研讨本中心阅览室提供的齐全的高等教育 机构资料库以及从英国文化委员会得到的其他资料，这样做一定会帮助您作出正确选择。 攻读学位 · 修读叁年获得第一本科学位，以便攻读荣誉本科学位。 · 完成某些学位课程需要四年，有些课程甚至需要更长时间。 · 部分在海外学习的刘程（例如语言课程）所需时间可能超过叁年。 · 包含大量实习的课程可能超过叁年。 以下为本科学位课程举例： · 文科学士 · 教育学学士 · 工程学学士 · 法学学士 · 医学学士 · 理科学士 除了攻读学位以外，您也可报考国家高等教育证书。此类全日制课程一般为期两年， 专业涉及科学技术与商务。在这类课程结束之后，再经过一年的学习便可以转读相关的学 位课程，从而将国家高等教育证书转为学位。 可供选读的专业如下： · 职业培训（例如，医学、工程或者法律） · 学术研究（例如，心理学、文学或者历史） 学位分为以下等级： · 一级学位 · 二级甲等学位 · 二级乙等学位 · 叁级学位 · 及格 英国许多大学与欧洲大学建立了联系，并且开设了学生交流课程。因此，您可能有机 会在欧洲其他国家学习课程的部分内容。开设职业培训课程的多数院校均安排学生实习。
英 国 教 育 概 况 英国的教育具有悠久的历史和古老的传统，其种类齐全，结构完备。高等教育起源于700多 年前。高等教育无论是科研质量还是毕业生质量在世界上都名列前茅，一直享有盛誉。自1 992年政府颁布高等教育改革议案后，英国几乎将所有的多科性技术学院都改名为大学，改 名后的大学获取了学位授予权，过去的大学学位授予委员会也因此失去其职能，在政府教 育改革议案的建议下被取消。英国高等院校根据其性质、特点和学位授予情况分为不同类 型。目前共有大学90所，学院123所，高等教育学校50所。
大学： 英国共有大学90所，大学以其高水平的教育和研究闻名于世。绝大多数大学都同工商 界保持着密切的联系。其先进的教育和设备一直吸引着海外学生赴英学习。英国大学都是 独立的自我管理机构，有权设置不同课程，并根据开设课程授予学士、硕士和博士等不同 学位。 学院与高等教育学校： 英国的学院和高等教育学校产生于70年代，这类学校一般规模与地方都较小，但这类 学校具有关心学生、注重教师与学生联系的特点，它们可提供水平不同、专业不同的各类 课程。除了本科生课程外，学校还设置许多专业性的或为有一定工作经验的学生选读的课 程。 英国教育体系中还设有继续教育内容。这是为16岁以上学生设置的达到普通教育程度及 高级补充程度的课程，许多课程为职业教育。目前共有500所学校开设这类课程，大约有5 00万成人就读继续教育课程。在英国教育改革议案中，明确指出学术资格与职业资格在就 业时得到同等承认。 英国学年分为三学期制，学年由9～10月开始，至第二年6～7月结束。三学期的开学时 间分别是 9～10月、1月和4月。英国学位可分为学士学位(Bachelor Degree)、硕士学位(Master
Degree) 和博士学位(Doctor of Philosophy)。学士学位或称第 一学位，攻读学士学位课程的学生，通常需要三年时间。学士学位有荣誉等级之分。
一般而言，学士学位可分为文学学士、理学学士、法学学士和工程学士等类别。但很多 情况下，相同科目的学位课程，不同的学校会颁发不同的学位名称。如：法律专业的学生 ，通常被称为法律学士或文学学士。硕士学位可分为授课形式的学位课程或以研究专修形 式的学位课程。授课形式的学位课程一般为一年，学生必须上一定学时的课程，每学期写 出规定数字的论文，年终递交最后的毕业论文。研究专修的硕士学位，通常需要两年的时 间，主要在导师指导下从事论文写作工作。 硕士阶段授予的学位有文学硕士、理学硕士、 法律硕士或工商管理硕士等。研究专修的硕士学位主要有哲学硕士或文学硕士。 各种专业 的博士学位通常需要申请人在至少学习两年相关专业，获得哲学硕士学位后，才可以申请 攻读博士学位，博士生至少在从事了三年的研究工作后，才可获得博士学位(Ph.D)。 英国在一些学院和高等教育学校还开设两年制或三年制的专业课程。两年制课程完成后 ，学生考试合格，可获取高等教育文凭证书(Diploma
in Higher Education),学生毕业后，如 果申请本科生课程，其两年制所学课程有可能被录取大学认可。三年制课程主要为工业界 培养职业学生，学生毕业后，可获得高等文凭证书(Higher
Diploma)。 英 国 入 学 要 求 何时入学 虽然英国院校通常在九月或者十月开学，在第二年六月或者七月学年结束，但是学生 也 可以在其他时间入学。例如： · 有些高等院校将学年分为学期。 · 从事研究的学生可以在学年中的任何时间入学。 英国的学年分为三个学期，假期包括圣诞节复活节以及暑假。暑假始于七月经整个八 月直至九月份。每个学期有十至十四周--学校和继续教育在学院一般学期较长，大学学期较 短。 在学年开始时入学学习总是最为轻松的，学校与继续教育学院往往在招生方面较为灵 活。如果您无法在九月份入学，那么最好是在来年一月入学。学校或者继续教育学院有时 也会安排学生在其他时间入学，而大学则很难做出这样的安排。 英国的各个教育区域均有统一的入学要求，依申请人的年龄或者学历，或者这两方面 的情况而定。有的学校或者学院的申请者较多。如果是这样，那么建议您最好在正常的入 学时间提出申请。您可能还会被告知，不宜的十五岁插班读普通中等教育证书课程，或者 在十七岁插班读高级水平课程。 然而，英国的教育制度也绝非一成不变。如果学生具有适当的学历，以及较高的英语 水平，表明该生能够从教学中获益，那无论该生在何时提出入学申请，校方均会根据其实 力破格录取。填好申请表格与个人简介极为重要，直接关系到校方是否会考虑在非正常招 生时间录取该生。 学历资格 学生需要了解自己所具有的学历资格相当于英国教育制度中的哪一个等级。官方从未 发布过英国学历与其他国家学历的转换对照表。英国教育机构与专业机构可以自行决定是 否对某种国际资格予以接受和承认。 然而，仍然可以根据院校以往的招生标准提出建议。关于各类院校对入学资格普遍的 最低要求。 如果仍有疑问，可以向下列机构查询： · 所选择的学校、学院、高等院校 · 英国文化委员会 · 国家学术评定信息中心 私立学校 私立学校通常如收十一岁、十三岁以及十六岁的新生。 · 公立学校的学生往往在十一岁转入私立学校学习。 · 从私立小学毕业的学生在十三岁时参加统一入学考试，升入私立中学。 · 从公立学校或者私立学校毕业的学生在十六岁时均可以升读预科班。 实际上，学校在招收外国留学生时往往采取变通政策，不受常规入学要求的限制，但 通常要对学生进行数学以及英语考试。 继续教育学院以及预科学院 继续教育学院、预科学院开设学术与职业培训课程，涉及面极为广泛。有关详情以及 课程举例，详见第二章。 对入学年龄的唯一要求是，申请人必须年满十六周岁，而没有上限。 您的英语水平应该达到课程程度的要求，并且需要向学校提供证明。学生在抵达英国 之后，通常需要接受英语测试。 现在，有越来越多的学院在一年之内招生两次或者三次--例如，在六月以及九月--但是 要依课程而定。如果您是来自与英国学年制度不同的国家，那么灵活机动的入学时间将对 您极为有利。 高等院校 高等院校入学年龄一般在十八岁以上，不设上限。有时，校方允许十八岁以下的优等 生攻读本科学位课程。学历资格是关键因素，符合要求的学历资格或许能够使您直接入读 第二年，有时甚至直接入读第三年的学位课程。 若要攻读研究生课程，一般必须具备为校方所认可的本科学位。某些专业会破例招收 具有相关工作经验的年长学生。 有些国家的学位并不等同于英国大学或者大学分校的学位。因此，申请人应向所选择 的高等院校，或者所在地的英国文化委员会查询。 自我介绍 在提出申请时，您需要注意几 下几点： · 申请表要填写得清楚、正确。 · 回答表格中的所有问题。 · 如果您对于如何正确地填写申请表格没有把握，那么应该向别人请教。 · 个人简介要力求中肯、全面。 · 要有合适的推荐人。 · 申请表格定要如期递交。 英 国 大 学 University of Aberdeen Abertay University, Dundee Anglia Polytechnic University, Aston University, Birmingham University of Buckingham The University of Bath Birmingham University
Bournemouth University Bradford University
University of Brighton Bristol University
Brunel University, Uxbridge, West London Coventry University
University of Cambridge University of Central England , Birmingham University of Central Lancashire ,
Preston City University, Central London University of East Anglia , Norwich Cranfield University
Derby University University of Dundee
Durham University Edinburgh University
University of East London Exeter University
University of Essex , Colchester
Glasgow University Glasgow Caledonian University University of Glamoragn , Pontypridd London Guildhall University University of Greenwich , London Huddersfield University Heriot Watt University, Edinburgh University of Hertfordshire , Hatfield University of Hull Lancaster University Keele University, Staffordshire University of Kent , Canterbury Kingston University, South West London Leeds Metropolitan University University of Leeds
University of Leicester De Montfort University Liverpool University University of Lincolnshire and Humberside , Hull University of Lincolnshire and Humberside , Lincoln Liverpool John Moores University Manchester Metropolitan
University University of Luton University of London Loughborough University University of Manchester Napier University, Edinburgh Middlesex University, West London Nottingham University
Newcastle University University of Northumbria , Newcastle University of North London Nottingham Trent University The Open University , Milton Keynes Oxford University
Oxford Brookes University Paisley University
Plymouth University The University of Portsmouth Queen's University Belfast Reading University
Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen
St.Andrews University
University of Salford The University of Sheffield Sheffield Hallam University University of Southampton South Bank University, London Staffordshire University Stirling University
The University of Strathclyde , Glasgow Thames Valley University, Slough University of Surrey , Guildford Sussex University,
Brighton University of Teesside
Sunderland University University of York University of Ulster University of Wales
University of Warwick University of the West of England , Bristol University of the Highlands and Islands
, Inverness University of Wolverhampton University of Westminster , London 畅 游 英 国
性： 热 畅 游 英 国 格兰 乍到英国，你可能发现，按照地图所示把英格兰割分成几个大区更容易理解。根据不同 的地势和行业分布，甚至所属居民的固定特征，可以把这些地区区别开来。例如，人们认 为居住在伦敦的人冷漠，而英 格兰北部居民则较友好，容易接纳外来人。一般来说，大都 市之外的生活节奏较慢，也更为悠闲安逸。 英国各种流行文化正在经历一场再生运动。也许是由于全国六合彩活动增加了艺术赞助 的缘故。不管由于什么原因，你作为学生在欣赏许多音乐节、外国剧院、舞蹈表演和各种 展览时都有可以享受到各种优 惠。 如果紧张繁忙的都市生活对你没有吸引力，你可以避开人口密集的都市中心，在许多平 静的英国乡村或海滨寻找一处栖身之地。英国有9家国家公园、6家森林公园、200家乡村 公园 、600多英里有古迹价值的海岸线，以及数以千计的历史建筑物和花园。 英格兰南部和东南部地区 英格兰南部和东南部地区有英国的首都，有称之为"家乡村"（HomeCountries）的周围各 郡，以及多个海滨城市。周围各郡既有和平宁静的绿野，又有欣赏首都名胜的便利。高速 火车可以满足众多上班族的 需要。这个地区许多大学如白金汉郡学院（Buckingham）和萨 瑞（Surrey）大学就位于美丽的乡村。再往东去，便是素有"英国花园"之称的肯特（Kent） 郡 ，是陆路前往欧洲的必经之地。其实,镶嵌在南部海岸线上的其它地区都有资格冠此美誉 。 有好几所大学位于英格兰南部的海滨和港口城市布莱顿（Brighton）、朴次茅斯（Portsmo uth）和南安普顿（Southampton）。这里的城市与风景如画般的乡村融为一体。顺着南部 大道（South
DownsWay）你可以观赏美丽的海滨风光。在海岸线前沿，观光者可以欣赏 到不同类型的景观：石灰岩峭壁、新建游东园、鹅卵石沙滩和维多利亚式栈桥。 伦敦 许多人选择来伦敦学习。特别是有些人曾以观光者身份到过这个都城，见识过那里美丽 的旧式建筑、优雅的街景和宽旷的公园，归去相当长一段之后，便忘却了污浊的空气和昂 贵的物价。伦敦既是欧洲最 大的都市，也是一个对比分明的城市。百万富豪与无家可归者 并肩而行，美丽的建筑物旁边处处可见60年代丑陋的办公大楼。 大伦敦市区和郊有众多的教育机会。全英国大学生中有40%在伦敦就学。那里也有成百 上千所私人语言学校和职业学院。一旦你思乡之情油然而生，你肯定能在伦敦找到家乡的 影子：食品、电影、报纸、 书刊或剧院。但伦敦也有不利之处。如果你想找机会练习你的 英语，你会发现难以摆脱国际公民这种环境。与来自世界各国的人们相识无疑是学在伦敦 的好处之一，但你能无法尽可能与当地人说英语，特别 是在语言学习时尤其如此。 英格兰西南 由于大西洋暖流流经英格兰西南角，那一带的气温比英格兰其他地方高，也是很吸引人 的假日胜地。 康沃尔（Cornwall）和德汶（Devon）周围地区一般都很宁静，但夏日里也常常发生游 客塞车现象。德汶和临近的萨默塞特(Somerset)地区因传统奶茶而闻名（边品茶边吃奶点 心、果酱和奶酷）和农 场自制的果酒（发酵苹果汗制成的高度酒）。这两样美味极受游客 欢迎，但肯定不适合节食者。 这里的自然风貌起伏多变，到处是高沼地和陡峭的河谷、壮观的礁石海岸线和沙滩海湾 。这里当然有必不可少的大众酒吧、学院酒吧和夜总会，同时在西南地区就学的学生们也 有很多参与水上体育活动 和机会，如帆船、室内与海上冲浪，以及潜水。 西南地区失业率较高，许多人完全依赖夏季旅游季节做买卖维持生计。由于这个原因，这 个地区可以找到英国最便宜的住房。康沃尔是英国非常宁静的地区，到伦敦的距离开车需 五个小时。 英格兰中部 你常常听到人们用米德兰兹（Midlands）一词称呼英格兰中部。这个地区曾一度是英国 工业革命的中心。如今，这里的工业已经失去了往日的辉煌，但是英国的第二大城市伯明 翰（Birmingham）依然是 重要的制造业中心。人们常把伯明翰看作是购买咖喱的最佳去处 ，这里有英国最为集中的亚洲人口。这个地区的大城市莱斯特（Leicester） 、伯明翰和卡 文垂（Coventry）都至少有两所甚至三所大学。英格兰中部地区也有著名的观光景点，如 艾冯河畔的斯特拉福（Stratford-upon-Avon）是英国剧作家和 诗人威廉.莎士比亚的诞生和 作古之地。 英格兰中部较南部平坦，大部分地区为典型的英国乡村景色，接天碧绿野相连，时而有 石头建筑物和城堡点缀其间。 英格兰北部 北方地区多起伏的山区和农地，分布着许多的工业城镇。奔宁(Pennines)山谷从德比（Der by）郡一直延伸到与苏格兰交界处，将英格兰北部地区分割为东西两侧。约克郡高沼地和 山谷为徒步旅行者提供 了许多山区景致。 这个地区曾是重工业基地。利物浦（Liverpool）、雪菲尔德(Sheffield)和纽卡素（Newcastl e）都曾有过工业化历史，或者是繁忙的港口，或者制造钢铁和出产煤炭。近年来，这些地 区特别是利物浦 失业率很高。 不过，北方城市现在都在努力成为通讯和商业中心，大部分城市有剧场、音乐厅、运动 场、艺术馆和博物馆设施，以满足人们的不同爱好。 北方地区的物价一般比南方便宜得多，只有个别地区例如约克市的住房费用较高。 -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 苏格兰 苏格兰各地的地形相差悬殊。低地（大约从与英格兰交界处到爱丁堡东南部地区）为起 伏的丘陵，Cairngorms却有荒凉不毛的悬崖。苏格兰乡村有无以伦比的野生动植物资源， 有些动物在英国其他地区 难得一见。事实上，欧共体已将苏格兰七十多处珍鸟和候鸟栖息 地列为"特殊保护区"。 苏格兰是一年一度爱丁堡国际艺术节的家乡。爱丁堡国际艺术节是英国最大的艺术节， 也是世界上最主要的文化活动之一，观众来自全世界各地。如果你对边缘剧院、音乐和诗 歌感兴趣的话，艺术节是不能不去光顾的。如 果你的兴趣在于科学，那么爱西堡也不会让 你失望，爱丁堡也是世界上独立举办科学节的最大城市之一。苏格兰科学家在攻克类似疯 牛病（BSE）以及爱滋病（AIDS）等人类疾病方面都处于前沿地位。 苏格兰的文化生活苏格兰的起源和遗产具有非常浪漫的色彩。如今，塞尔特（Celtic）文 化到处可见，但只有六万多人使用原有的盖尔语和塞尔特语，大部分居住在西部岛屿。虽 然这种文化仅存于一小部分苏格兰人口中， 政府却支持盖尔语教学，增加盖尔语电视广播 和对盖尔文化机构的赞助，这也表明塞尔特文化是苏格兰文化遗产的重要组成部分。苏格 兰人讲英语有浓重的地方口音
，这点你可能通过欣赏苏格兰籍的影星SeanConnery和EwanMcGregor的作品有所了解， 如评论家所声称的那样，他们也被当作男子汉的标准 化身而走红。如果你喜欢跳舞的话， 那么苏格兰的民族土风舞"Ceilid"(发音为Kay-lee)是不能不以身试"舞"的。你将有机会学习 苏格兰基本的民族舞蹈，开怀畅饮，沉浸在民族音乐和友好的气氛之中。 苏格兰发行自己的货币，所有苏格兰的纸币和硬币在全英国属于法定货币。苏格兰教育 制度也与英格兰不同，但这并不意味苏格兰的高等院校只限于接收苏格兰学生。许多学苏 格兰学生跨越边界南下读 书，同样多的英格兰学生也北上进入苏格兰学习。法律制度的动 作也不尽相同。 爱丁堡 爱丁堡是苏格兰首府，也是一个建在悬崖峭壁上具有悠久历史的城市，有蜿蜒起伏的街 道。在18世纪未的19世纪初，爱丁堡是苏格兰文化顶峰时期的中心，产生了大卫.休莫(Dav id Hume)这样的哲学家。如今，苏格兰的城堡和皇宫、大教堂、古老的街道和美术馆对世 界各地的游客和到苏格兰高校就读的学生具有极大的诱惑力。 格拉斯哥（Glasgow）是苏格兰最大的城市，居民有667，540人，也是与爱丁堡和伦敦 竞争的文化城市。格拉斯哥有数家大剧场、大美术馆以及诸如Burrell等重要的美术品和实 用艺术品收藏馆 。 最近，格拉斯哥被一国际旅行社者杂志成千上万读者推选为"英国最友好的城市"。就食 品和文化而言，格拉斯哥仅次于伦敦，与爱丁堡齐名。 -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 威尔士 威尔士公园拥有国际性城市--例如，卡地夫市有非常壮观的建筑设计，维多利亚式拱廊 和优雅别致的民宅以及某些不列颠岛上最壮丽的景观。这里重峦叠嶂，丘陵起伏，遍地的 荒野、森林和崃谷吸引了 来自世界各地的无游客。斯诺登尼亚（Snowdonia）、布雷肯灯 塔（Brecon）和彭布罗克（Pembroke）郡海岸都被辟为国家公园受到保护。几十年前，煤 炭和钢铁生产曾经是威尔士经济的核心。因为来自进 口低价煤炭的竞争和采用其他发电方 法，威尔士的煤炭工业现在已基本消失。虽然钢铁生产还占有重要地位，但是扩张最快的 领域是服务业的技术开发。 国王亨利七世于1485年统一了英格兰和威尔士。他是带有半威尔士血缘的国王，因此威尔 士与英格兰拥有共同的政治和文化制度，包括货币和法律制度。但是，威尔士有自已的国 旗，不久将成立威尔士 有自己的国旗，不久将成立威尔士议会（WelshAssembly）。威尔 士语也是欧洲最古老的语言之一（大约公元前600年时由塞尔特人从欧洲传入威尔士）。如 今 ，威尔士语依然被居住在威尔士西部山区的兰彼得（Lampetter）、阿伯里斯特维斯（Aber ystwyth）和其它一些地区的人们所广泛使用。1942年之前， 威尔士语受到限制。但是从 那时以来，威尔士人保存威尔士语的决心日益增强。现在有威尔士语电视和广播电台，所 有的威尔士学校都给16岁以下的学生开设威尔士语课程。虽然威尔士大学没有单独的塞尔 特语或威尔士语系，但是威尔士语作为学生现代语言选修课程，所有学生都可在学习其他 主要课程的同时免费学习。威尔士高等院校的课程都用英语教授。 威尔士的文化生活 每个威尔士村镇都有自己特有的地方传统和习惯。每年一度的Hay-on-Wye"图书城"（Town Books）就在威尔士举办，吸引了国际著名的诗人、作家和其他文化人前来参加。威尔士悠 久的音乐史与坚实的 文学传统相媲美，在英国每年举行的许多最著名的艺术节上都有表演 。在Eisteddfods（直译为"聚会"）文化艺术节期间，音乐和文学艺术家们相互竞争，他们 能讲威尔士语。来自世界各地的人们在每年一度 的Llangollen国际音乐艺术节上载歌载舞 ，尽兴发挥。皇家全国艺术节是艺术、工艺、文学、舞蹈和戏剧表演的盛会，该艺术节每 年在威尔士的不同地点举行 ，并由Gorwedd（艺术节游唱诗人协会）的大僧侣(ArchDruid) （古代牧师执事）主持。 卡地夫 自1995年以来,位于南格拉摩根（SouthGlamorgan）的卡地夫一直是威尔士首府。因19 世纪成为港口输出威尔士谷地煤炭，卡地夫积累了丰富的海事文化遗产。该城市的核心建 筑物是始建于11世纪的 城堡，19世纪又按照新哥特式风格基本重建。作为活跃的文化中心 ，卡地夫有不少很好的博物馆，例如威尔士民俗博物馆和海事博物馆。卡地夫也是威尔士 橄榄球运动的大本营。卡地夫是伦敦以外电影和电 视节目制作公司最为集中的城市，拥有 众多与媒体相关的产业。这一点更加强了卡地夫的文化地位。除此之外，这里到处是咖啡 厅、餐馆、酒吧和酒店，成为你悠闲从容地欣赏最美丽乡村景致的场所。 -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 北爱尔兰 北爱尔兰的六个郡处处是葱绿苍翠的低山丘陵，峡长而平静的湖泊延伸到礁石海边。很 值得一去的地方是东北海岸的巨大石堤（Giant's
Causeway）,它是大自然的神奇造化，几 百年前由于巨大的火山喷发而形成。 在1171年之前，爱尔兰为一独立国家。这年英国国王开始了一系列入侵爱尔兰的行动。 随后从15世纪未到16世纪，英杰国群主发动了镇压爱尔兰持不同政见者的运动。自那时以 来，北爱尔兰的历史便充 满了政治动荡，经常发生和平和暴力反抗。1801年，按照联合法 ，爱尔兰、英格兰和苏格兰正式宣布统一，成为大不列颠和爱尔兰联合王国。1916年，民 族独立起义被镇压，起义俯视被处死。 新芬党（SinnFein）是爱尔兰民族独立党，宣布爱尔兰为共和国。1922年爱尔兰获得了 国家自治权。古老阿斯特（Ulster）省的北方六郡被给予不加入的选择权。当爱尔兰于194 9年完全独立后，北方 各郡信奉新教的多数人口选择继续作为联合王国的一部分，拥有独 立议会（Stormont）和有限自治政府。 从一开始起，北爱尔兰议会中反对独立的势力就占有多数席位，因而组成政府的部长也 都来自反对独立的方面。处于少数派的民族独立党不满于这种一边倒以及他们政治地位实 际上被严重削弱的情况。 在60年代期间北爱尔兰复难民权运动之后，爆发了一系列具有宗教色彩的暴力事件。这 便是众所周知的北爱尔兰省民权和政治总是即"纠纷"的根源所在。 双方的恐怖主义使北爱 尔兰严重的政治冲突更加恶化。1998年达成的北爱尔兰和平协议（GoodFr-idayAgreemen t），旨在结束宗教暴力冲突。它标志着所有政党开始参与和平对话，能否成为尚需拭目 以 待。对于反对独立和争取共和的双方来说，实现北爱尔兰永久和平所需的下一阶段行动， 即是解除非法武装。 爱尔兰的文化生活 北爱尔兰的文化遗产丰富多样。那里有许多博物馆，包括贝尔法斯特的阿斯特（Ulster） 博物馆、CountyDown的阿斯特民俗和交通博物馆，以及阿斯特美国民俗园 。后者成功地 记载了爱尔兰人移居美利坚合众国的历史。除外，还有许多地方赞助的博物馆的文化遗址 。北爱尔兰也有许多地方艺术节，包括有名的贝尔发斯特艺术节。北爱尔兰艺术委员会向 地方戏剧演 出公司、乐队、交响乐团、剧院、作家和艺术家小组以及其他众多的文化团体 和个人提供赞助。 贝尔发斯特 贝尔发斯特市居住了三分之二的爱尔兰人口,总人口将近50万。该城市在19世纪随着亚麻 制品、制绳、造船工业的成员而迅速扩张。工业在该地区的发展中起了非常重要的作用。 虽然贝尔发斯特处于北 爱尔兰冲突的中心位置，但是近年来已经转变成一个文化和观光城 市，有专门为记录爱尔兰文化遗产的博物馆。虽然许多爱尔兰人在18世纪和19世纪移居美 国和纽西兰（New
Zealand），但是他们祖先的农庄依然保存下来。 贝尔发斯特市和周围地区可以访问四位美国总统的家乡。女王大学与贝尔斯特相距半英 里。 伦 敦 景 点 雄伟的圣保罗大教堂屹立在英国伦敦城“弗利特街”东口外不远处的卢德盖特山上，为世 界第三高教堂。它以悠久的历史、壮观的圆形屋顶和别具一格的建筑特色而闻名于世，是 到英国旅游的人的必来之处。自公元604年，这里一直是伦敦主教堂的所在地，以伦敦保护 神圣保罗的名字命名。 圣保罗大教堂
1666年一场大火将原有的一座哥特式大教堂毁于一旦。现存建筑是英国著名设计大师和 建筑家克托弗.雷恩爵士营建的。工程从1675年开始，直到1710年才告完工，共花费了75 万英镑。为了这一伟大的建筑艺术杰作，雷恩整整花了45年的心血。圣保罗大教堂内顶（ 图右） 大英博物馆 大英博物馆又称不列颠博物馆，位于伦敦牛津大街北面的大罗素广场，是世界上历史最 悠久、规模最宏伟的博物馆之一。这座庞大的古罗马式建筑里珍藏的文物和图书资料是世 界上任何一个博物馆所不能比拟的。 大英博物馆初创于1753年，1759年对外开放。现有房屋为19世纪中叶所建，共有100多 个陈列室，面积6，7万平方米。原来主要藏书，其后兼收历史文物和各国古代艺术品，迄 今共藏有展品400万件。 大英博物馆整日免费开放。 白金汉宫 白金汉宫是英国的王宫，位于伦敦最高权利的所在地----威斯敏特区。东接圣·詹姆斯公 园，西临海德公园，是英国王室生活和工作的地方。王宫初建于1703年，白金汉公爵、若 曼底公爵和约翰.谢菲尔德在这里建造了一座公馆，并以白金汉公爵的名字命名。白金汉宫 经过多次修建和扩展，现已成为一座规模雄伟的三层长方形建筑。外国的国家元首和政界 首脑访问英国时，女王就在宫院中陪同贵宾检阅仪仗队。 白金汉宫前的广场中央屹立着有伊丽莎白二世的高祖母维多利亚女王镀金雕像的纪念碑 。 国会大厦及大本钟 国会大厦是白厅大道上最醒目的建筑也是英国君主政体的象征，哥德式的建筑群，壮丽 中带有古典风韵，气势磅礴。 现在所看到的国会大厦其实是伦敦最新建的宫殿。1834年，一把大火烧掉了整座原来的 西敏宫，仅留下一座只剩屋瓦的西敏厅，之后花了12年的时间才建成现在的规模。改名国 会大厦之后便成为伦敦的政治中心，国会议员的开会场所。 伦敦塔桥 这是泰晤士河上诸多桥梁中，位于最下游的一座。塔桥以两座塔做为基底，采用哥特式 厚重风格设计。当大型船只要通过时，全长270公尺、重约1000吨的桥身会慢慢打开成“八” 字状。以前塔桥利用水压以蒸汽做为开关的动力，1976年起改用电动控制。 西敏寺 双塔耸立的西敏寺，正面看起来非常壮观。“西敏寺”一名源自西元970年，一群圣本笃教 会的修士在当时伦敦市，、修建修道院教堂，从此留名至今。历代国王的加冕仪式、婚丧 喜宴及国家大典等活动都是在这里举行，甚至连王室的坟墓也几乎都设在这里，此外，去 多历史上著名人物的墓碑或纪念碑也设在教堂内。 白 金 汉 宫 白金汉宫(Buckingham
Palace) 自从1837年维多利亚女王登上王座, buckingham palace改为王宫。宫殿上方如果飘扬 着国旗，表示女王正住在宫中。这座宫殿命名来自buckinghan
house ，1703-1705年budkingham公爵在此建造了buckinghan house 。1762年乔治三世买下来 送给他的妻子，自那以后就以女王的宫殿而闻名，1825年 john nash 实施了多方面的扩展 ，命名为buckinghan
palace。白金汉宫现已开放民众参观，但预约人潮通常都大排长龙。 除了皇宫内部外，值得参观的地方还有：皇家美术馆、皇家马厩和知名的禁卫军交接典礼( 四到九月，每天上午11:30)
特拉法加广场(Trafalgar
Square) 位于伦敦市中心，是游伦敦的起点，也是世界上最出色的公共广场。广场是古典建筑 的典范，四周环绕优雅的白色外观，场中矗立着长53公尺的纳尔逊纪念柱，柱头有17.5呎 的铜像，四周有四只20 呎长的铜狮，基柱附近尚有各战役的浮雕。Nelsona 纪念柱在trafalgar
square的中心，广场是为Nelson1805年在西班牙打胜仗而建。铜像是20 年后建的。广场北部为伦敦娱乐王国的集中区，音乐厅、剧院林立。特拉法加广场是伦敦 交通的枢纽，有十二种公车和五线地铁经过这里。此外，这里也是伦敦每年除夕夜狂欢的 所在，同时也是一百多年来人民政治示威的场地。
西敏寺(Westminster
Abbey) 西敏寺是英国的圣地。它既是英国君主的陵墓所在，也是伦敦最杰出的哥德式建筑。 在十一世纪时，寺址原是一片沼泽荒地，只住着麻疯病患者，后来经改建，直到十八世纪 西侧两塔完成之后才成今貌。 西敏寺是依拉丁风格建造的十字形教堂，主祭坛向东，旅客 须由西侧进入，参观时可从华丽的正殿天花板开始。 (1)亨利七世礼拜堂(Henry
VII Chapel)：是西敏寺最珍贵的宝藏，扇形圆拱屋顶以纯白石材 建造，装饰着中古时期巴斯勋位的骑士大十字勋章(Knights
Grand Cross)的彩色旗帜。 (2)皇家空军礼拜堂(Royal
Air Force Chapel)：有令人叹为观止的彩色玻璃窗，绘有每一个 参加不列颠战役的飞行中队的代表徽章。 诗人隅(Poet's
Corner)：拥有乔叟(Geoffery Chaucer)、济慈(John
Keats)、米尔顿(John Milton)、以及莎士比亚等诗人的纪念碑。 英王加冕宝座(English
Coronation Chair)： 1300年爱德华一世所建，至今仍是英王登基的宝座，宝座底下是著名的苏格兰石(Ston e of Scone)，这块冰冷的岩石是苏格兰王传统的加冕宝座，后被英格兰人偷到伦敦来。1950年 曾被苏格兰民族主义者劫走，后又及时取回让伊莉莎白二世登基。
旅游随笔—北威尔斯－－游英伦必到之处 趁著复活节的几天假期，我到英国北威尔斯(North
Wales)玩了三天。一众喜爱堡垒风 景的朋友下次去英国不妨到此一游
Caenarfon和 Conwy这两个城市都有堡垒。Caenarfon是北威尔斯第一大城，查理斯 王子於一九六九年便是在这堡垒 授职成为威尔斯王子。英国王室拥有一套规举，原来大英 皇帝最年长的儿子才有资格成为威尔斯王子的。Conwy的面积虽比不上 Caenarfon，但值 得参观的地方比
Caenarfon多。除可参观全威尔斯最老大屋及全英国最小房屋外，走上城 堡漫步及远眺
ConwyCastle令你像回到中世纪时代。 北威尔斯有著全英伦及威尔斯最高的山峰 －－ The
Snowdon。不想远足的话，可乘由 蒸气推动的小火车到达山顶。我推介乘火车至
Clogwyn， 再步行剩下来约 1/3之路程。不 是笔者懒，而是火车会经过很多美丽景色如瀑布，这是行山者所看不到的。由於山顶离水 平线有三千多公尺高，切记带备风褛前往，Snowdonia
National Park内有深谷，有湖、有 树林、有荒地，驾车前往亦是一大享受。 Portmeirion是一私人村庄，由建筑家Sir Clough
Williams-Ellis花了四十七年建成。其 意大利建筑风格加上涂了不同颜色的屋子，这是英国其他地方所难得一见的。虽然村庄不 大，但其一大片沙滩及偌大的树林(记紧到 Ghost Garden一行)，很容易便花了一天时间。 Portmeirion另一出名的是其生产的瓷器，虽然¤钱狻贵，但不买也要到
'The Ship Shop'一 饱眼福才走 威尔斯必买的纪念品是特产爱的钥匙(Lovespoon)，这是男方送给女方的定情信物。钥 匙刻有不同图案，代表著男方不同的心意：钥匙孔代表「我的房屋是属於你 的」，圆波的 数目代表「我想和你有多少个孩子」 … … 是否很有趣呢 异国风情：网吧在英国 在英国，绝大部分的公司和学校都使用了互联网进行工作或教学，应当说英国人上网 是很容易的。但是我在伦敦还是看到有很多人去网吧上网，原因是英国的电话费和上网费 都比较贵，上网吧就更便利。 英国的网吧有好几种。一种是网吧“专卖店”，经营内容只有上网服务，其工作人员受过 专门的培训，一般实行24小时营业。最有名的应该是号称全世界最大的网吧Easy Everything。它的建筑外观和工作人员的着装选用鲜艳的橘红色，全透明的玻璃窗使得路人 可以清楚地看到网吧里面的人。上网时，先根据自己估计的上网时间买单(一般是每小时4 英镑，还有各种优惠价格供选择)，然后在电脑上输入工作人员给的用户号码，就可以上网 了。Easy
Everything在伦敦开了好几家分店，在最热闹的商业地段如牛津街、特拉法加广 场、维多利亚火车站等都可见到。它的店堂里总是播放着最流行的音乐，时髦的青年人穿 梭进出，真是都市里一道亮丽的风景。从店里的介绍资料上得知，Easy
Everything在英国 各地开设了21家网吧，每家网吧都有好几百台电脑，这些电脑用的都是最流行的液晶显示 屏。除了国内，Easy
Everything还在欧洲其他的一些著名城市开设了20家分店，如巴塞罗 那、马德里、柏林、阿姆斯特丹等。迄今为止，已有200万名顾客光临过Easy Everything 。 还有一种网吧设在超市的咖啡角，营业时间同超市开门的时间一样。我发现，在这里 上网的人大都不太会使用电脑，顾客以老年人居多。服务员好像也没有受过什么专业训练 ，解决不了什么问题。有一次，我急着要打印一份网上的资料，家里没有打印机，我就跑 到最近的TESCO超市。我先问了服务员是否可以从网上下载文件打印，服务员说没问题。 我就买了半小时的上网时间，可是我试了半天，怎么也没办法存入硬盘，而且也找不到A盘 。我就跑到客户服务中心要求退款，接待小姐的态度倒很好，当即就退了钱。 前几天看到国内的报纸上在议论网吧存在的合理性，无论其原因如何，我想要说的是 身处21世纪的我们不可能拒绝网络时代的来临。(新民晚报 徐英子) 英国历史
： 热 Stonehenge and other examples of prehistoric culture are all
that remain of the earliest inhabitants of Britain. Celtic peoples followed. Roman
invasions of the 1st century B.C. brought Britain into contact with continental Europe. When
the Roman legions withdrew in the 5th century A.D., Britain fell easy prey to the
invading hordes of Angles, Saxons, and Jutes from Scandinavia and the Low Countries. The
invasions had little effect on the Celtic peoples of Wales and Scotland. Seven large Anglo-Saxon
kingdoms were established, and the original Britons were forced into Wales
and Scotland. It was not until the 10th century that the country finally became
united under the kings of Wessex. Following the death of Edward the Confessor (1066), a dispute
about the succession arose, and William, Duke of Normandy, invaded England,
defeating the Saxon king, Harold II, at the Battle of Hastings (1066). The Norman
conquest introduced Norman French law and feudalism. The reign
of Henry II (1154——1189),
first of the Plantagenets, saw an increasing centralization of royal power at the expense of the nobles,
but in 1215 King John (1199 ——1216) was
forced to sign the Magna Carta, which awarded the people, especially the nobles, certain basic rights. Edward I (1272——1307)
continued the conquest of Ireland, reduced Wales to subjection, and made some gains in
Scotland. In 1314, however, English forces led by Edward II were ousted from
Scotland after the Battle of Bannockburn. The late 13th and early 14th centuries saw the
development of a separate House of Commons with tax-raising powers. Edward
III's claim to the throne of France led to the Hundred Years' War (1338——1453) and the
loss of almost all the large English territory in France. In England, the great
poverty and discontent caused by the war were intensified by the Black Death, a plague that
reduced the population by about one-third. The Wars of the Roses (1455——1485), a
struggle for the throne between the House of York and the House of Lancaster, ended
in the victory of Henry Tudor (Henry VII) at Bosworth Field (1485). During the
reign of Henry VIII (1509——1547), the
church in England asserted its independence from the Roman Catholic Church. Under Edward VI
and Mary, the two extremes of religious fanaticism were reached, and it
remained for Henry's daughter, Elizabeth I (1558——1603), to set up the Church of England on
a moderate basis. In 1588, the Spanish Armada, a fleet sent out by Catholic King
Philip II of Spain, was defeated by the English and destroyed during a storm. During
Elizabeth's reign, England became a world power. Elizabeth's heir was a Stuart〞James VI of Scotland〞who joined the two crowns as James I (1603——1625). The Stuart kings
incurred large debts and were forced either to depend on Parliament for taxes or to
raise money by illegal means. In 1642, war broke out between Charles I and a large segment
of the Parliament; Charles was defeated and executed in 1649, and the monarchy
was then abolished. After the death in 1658 of Oliver Cromwell, the lord
protector, the Puritan Commonwealth fell to pieces and Charles II was placed on the throne in
1660. The struggle between the king and Parliament continued, but Charles II knew when to
compromise. His brother, James II (1685——1688), possessed none of Charles II's
ability and was ousted by the Revolution of 1688, which confirmed the primacy of
Parliament. James's daughter, Mary, and her husband, William of Orange, then became the rulers. Queen
Anne's reign (1702——1714) was
marked by the Duke of Marlborough's victories over France at Blenheim, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet
in the War of the Spanish Succession. England and Scotland meanwhile were
joined by the Act of Union (1707). Upon the death of Anne, the distant claims of the
elector of Hanover were recognized, and he became king of Great Britain and Ireland
as George I. The unwillingness of the Hanoverian kings to rule resulted in
the formation by the royal ministers of a cabinet, headed by a prime minister, which
directed all public business. Abroad, the constant wars with France expanded the British
Empire all over the globe, particularly in North America and India. This imperial
growth was checked by the revolt of the American colonies (1775——1781). Struggles with France
broke out again in 1793 and during the Napoleonic Wars, which ended at Waterloo in
1815. The Victorian
era, named after Queen Victoria (1837——1901),
saw the growth of a democratic system of government that had begun with the
Reform Bill of 1832. The two important wars in Victoria's reign were the Crimean War
against Russia (1853——1856) and the Boer War (1899——1902), the latter enormously
extending Britain's influence in Africa. Increasing uneasiness at home and abroad marked the
reign of Edward VII (1901 ——1910).
Within four years after the accession of George V in 1910, Britain entered World War I when Germany invaded Belgium. The nation was led
by coalition cabinets, headed first by Herbert Asquith and then, starting in 1916,
by the Welsh statesman David Lloyd George. Postwar labor unrest culminated in the
general strike of 1926. King Edward
VIII succeeded to the throne on Jan. 20, 1936, at his father's death, but he abdicated on Dec. 11, 1936 (in order to marry an
American divorc谷e, Wallis Warfield Simpson), in favor of his brother, who became
George VI. The efforts
of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain to stem the rising threat of Nazism in Germany failed with the German invasion of Poland on
Sept. 1, 1939, which was followed by Britain's entry into World War II on Sept. 3.
Allied reverses in the spring of 1940 led to Chamberlain's resignation and the formation of
another coalition war cabinet by the Conservative leader, Winston Churchill, who led
Britain through most of World War II. Churchill resigned shortly after V-E Day, May 8,
1945, but then formed a ※caretaker§ government
that remained in office until after the parliamentary elections in July, which the Labour Party won overwhelmingly. The new
government, formed by Clement R. Attlee, began a moderate socialist program. (For
details of World War II, see Headline History, World War II.) In 1951,
Churchill again became prime minister at the head of a Conservative government. George VI died on Feb. 6, 1952, and was
succeeded by his daughter, Elizabeth II. Churchill stepped down in 1955 in favor of Sir
Anthony Eden, who resigned on grounds of ill health in 1957 and was succeeded by Harold
Macmillan and Sir Alec Douglas-Home. In 1964, Harold Wilson led the Labour Party to
victory. A lagging economy brought the Conservatives back to power in 1970.
Prime Minister Edward Heath won Britain's admission to the European Community.
Margaret Thatcher became Britain's first woman prime minister as the Conservatives
won 339 seats on May 3, 1979. An
Argentine invasion of the Falkland Islands on April 2, 1982, involved Britain
in a war 8,000 mi from the home islands. Argentina had long
claimed the Falklands, known as the Malvinas in Spanish, which had been occupied by the
British since 1832. Britain won a decisive victory within six weeks when more than
11,000 Argentine troops on the Falklands surrendered on June 14, 1982. Although
there were continuing economic problems and foreign policy disputes, an upswing in the economy in 1986——1987 led Thatcher to call
elections in June, and she won a near-unprecedented third consecutive term. The
unpopularity of Thatcher's poll tax together with an uncompromising position toward further
European integration eroded support within her own party. When John Major won the
Conservative Party leadership in November, Thatcher resigned, paving the way
for Major to form a government. Eighteen
years of Conservative rule ended in May 1997 when Tony Blair and the Labour Party triumphed in the British elections. Blair has
been compared to former U.S. president Bill Clinton for his youthful, telegenic
personality and centrist views. He produced constitutional reform that partially decentralized
the UK, leading to the formation of separate Parliaments in Wales and Scotland by
1999. Britain turned over its colony Hong Kong to China in July 1997. Blair's
controversial meeting in Oct. 1997 with Sinn Fein's president, Gerry Adams, was the first meeting in 76 years between a British prime
minister and a Sinn Fein leader. It infuriated numerous factions but was a symbolic
gesture in support of the nascent peace talks in Northern Ireland. In 1998 the Good
Friday Agreement, strongly supported by Tony Blair, led to the first promise of peace
between Catholics and Protestants since the beginning of the so-called Troubles. Along with
the U.S., Britain launched air strikes against Iraq in Dec. 1998 after Saddam Hussein expelled UN arms inspectors. In the spring of
1999, Britain spearheaded the NATO operation in Kosovo, which resulted in
Yugoslavian president Slobodan Milosevic's withdrawal from the territory. In Feb.
2001, foot-and-mouth disease broke out among British livestock, prompting other nations to ban British meat imports and forcing the
slaughter of thousands of cattle, pigs, and sheep in an effort to stem the highly
contagious disease. The episode cost farmers and the tourist industry billions of dollars. In June
2001, Blair won a second landslide victory, with the Labour Party capturing 413 seats in Parliament. Britain
became the staunchest ally of the U.S. after the Sept. 11 attacks. British troops joined the U.S. in the bombing campaign against
Afghanistan in Oct. 2001, after the Taliban-led government refused to turn over the prime
suspect in the terrorist attacks, Osama bin Laden. Blair again
proved himself to be the strongest international supporter of the U.S. in Sept. 2002, when he became President Bush's major ally in
calling for a war against Iraq. Blair maintained that military action was justified
because Iraq was developing weapons of mass destruction that were a direct threat to its
enemies. He continued to support the Bush administration's hawkish policies despite
significant opposition in his own party and the British public. In March 2003, a London
Times newspaper poll indicated that only 19% of respondents approved of military
action without a UN mandate. As the inevitability of the U.S. strike on Iraq
grew nearer, Blair announced that he would join the U.S. in fighting Iraq with or without a
second UN resolution. Three of his ministers resigned as a result. Britain entered the war on
March 20, supplying 45,000 troops. In the
aftermath of the war, Blair came under fire from government officials for allegedly exaggerating Iraq's possession of weapons of mass
destruction. In July 2003 Blair announced that ※history
would forgive§ the UK and U.S. ※if we are wrong§ and that the end to the ※inhuman
carnage and suffering§ caused by
Saddam Hussein was justification enough for the war. The arguments about the
war grew so vociferous between the Blair government and the BBC that a prominent
weapons scientist, David Kelly, who was caught in the middle, committed suicide. In
Jan. 2004, the Hutton Report exonerated the Blair administration of any misconduct
concerning the weapons inspections and concluded that it had not ※sexed-up§
the intelligence dossier, an accusation put forth by BBC reporter Andrew Gilligan. The
report strongly criticized the BBC for its ※defective§ editorial policies, and as a
consequence, the BBC's top management resigned. In July
2004, the Butler Report on pre——Iraq
war British intelligence was released. It echoed the findings of the U.S. Senate Intelligence
Committee of the week before that the intelligence had vastly exaggerated Saddam Hussein's
threat. The famous claim that Iraq's chemical and biological weapons ※are deployable within 45 minutes of an order to use them§ was especially singled out as highly
misleading. But like the U.S. report, it cleared the government of any role in manipulating the
intelligence. On May 5,
2005, Blair won a historic third term as the country's prime minister. Despite this victory, Blair's party was severely hurt in the
elections. The Labour Party won just 36% of the national vote, the lowest percentage by
a ruling party in British history. The Conservative Party won 33%, and the Liberal
Democrats 22%. Blair acknowledged that the reason for the poor showing was
Britain's involvement in the war in Iraq, which was widely unpopular. A number of political
analysts believe Blair will not serve out his new five-year term. Many expect him to resign
in the next several years and turn over the reins of the Labour Party to Gordon Brown,
the chancellor of the exchequer, whose policies many credit in creating Britain's
strong and stable economy. On July 7,
2005, London suffered a terrorist bombing, Britain's worst attack since World War II. Four bombs exploded in three subway stations
and on one double-decker bus during the morning rush hour, killing 52 and wounding
more than 700. Four Muslim men, three of them British-born, were identified as the
suicide bombers. On July 21, terrorists attempted another attack on the transit system,
but the bombs failed to explode. A leaked document by a top British government
official warned Prime Minister Blair more than a year before the bombings that Britain's
engagement in Iraq was fueling Islamic extremism, but Blair has repeatedly denied such a
link, contending that the bombings were the result of an ※evil ideology§
that had taken root before the Iraq war. Blair proposed legislation that would toughen the country's
antiterrorism measures, and suffered his first major political defeat as prime minister
in November, when his proposal that terrorist suspects could be held without charge for up
to 90 days was rejected. 英国政府结构
： 热 The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy and
parliamentary democracy, with a queen and a Parliament that has two houses: the House of
Lords, with 574 life peers, 92 hereditary peers, and 26 bishops; and the House of Commons,
which has 651 popularly elected members. Supreme legislative power is vested in
Parliament, which sits for five years unless dissolved sooner. The House of Lords was
stripped of most of its power in 1911, and now its main function is to revise legislation. In
Nov. 1999 hundreds of hereditary peers were expelled in an effort to make the body
more democratic. The executive power of the Crown is exercised by the cabinet,
headed by the prime minister. 英国地理
： 热 The United Kingdom, consisting of Great Britain (England,
Wales, and Scotland) and Northern Ireland, is twice the size of New York State.
England, in the southeast part of the British Isles, is separated from Scotland on the north
by the granite Cheviot Hills; from them the Pennine chain of uplands extends south through
the center of England, reaching its highest point in the Lake District in the
northwest. To the west along the border of Wales—a land of steep hills and valleys—are the
Cambrian Mountains, while the Cotswolds, a range of hills in Gloucestershire, extend
into the surrounding shires. Important
rivers flowing into the North Sea are the Thames, Humber, Tees, and Tyne. In the west are the Severn and Wye, which empty into
the Bristol Channel and are navigable, as are the Mersey and Ribble. 英国环境
： 热 Among the indigenous trees in Britain are the oak, holly,
hawthorn, and pine. The mild climate and the ready availability of water support a wide
variety of flowers and other plants. The large
wildlife of the islands has been killed off over the years, but many small animals remain: foxes, squirrels, rabbits, hares, badgers.
In some areas such as Richmond Park and the New Forest there are herds of deer;
wild ponies are found in the New Forest and on Dartmoor. Seals are found off the coast
particularly in the North Sea. Trout and salmon flourish in some of the less polluted rivers,
where they have been encouraged for the sake of sport fishing. Birdlife
includes owls, blackbirds, sparrows, starlings, thrushes, pigeons, crows, grouse, seagulls, kingfishers, ducks, swans and puffins. The
kestrel is the most common bird of prey, found even in central London; the golden eagle
and the osprey are found only in the wildest areas of Scotland. Bird watching is a
popular hobby in the UK. There are
many types of butterflies including the common blue, the large white, the red admiral, the tortoise shell and the swallowtail. All the
UK's wildlife has suffered from human intervention: habitat destruction, pollution from industry, from vehicles and from sewage
disposal, pesticide residues and, in some cases such as rabbits, foxes or birds of prey, from
deliberate attempts at extermination. However, bodies such as the National Trust
(founded in 1895 and the UK's oldest conservation organisation) have led the way in
habitat protection. The first Nature Reserve was established in 1895. In recent years
successes have included the reintroduction of the osprey. 英国建筑艺术
： 热 Although
very little remains of the domestic buildings of Britain's prehistoric peoples,
their graves, religious monuments and defensive structures
can be seen throughout the islands. Long
barrows and chambered tombs, dated around 3000 BC were collective burial places. The round barrows which followed them in the second
millennium BC were for individual burial. Stone
circles such as those at Avebury, Stonehenge, and Callanish date from around the same time as the round barrows but are often
built on earlier timber monuments. Causewayed
camps, such as Windmill Hill date from the time of the long barrows. The hill forts of Cadbury Castle and Maiden Castle were
built in the first millennium BC and lasted until the Roman invasion. The
invading Romans brought with them a wholly different lifestyle and the architecture which supported it. Towns such as Canterbury,
Colchester, Lincoln, London and York included public buildings such as basilicas (law
courts), baths and theatres. The most famous example of Roman military architecture is
Hadrian's Wall, marking the frontier between Roman Britain and Scotland. The Roman
Villa, generally a large and well-appointed building at the centre of a substantial
estate was another major introduction to Britain. The largest, such as the
"palace" at Fishbourne in West Sussex, had beautiful mosaic floors, their own bathhouses and
central heating. The
"Dark Ages" after the decline of Roman Britain led eventually to a
Christian Britain whose architectural remains include Celtic crosses
and Saxon churches. The Norman
invasion brought a distinctive style of architecture seen in cathedrals such as Durham, Southwell and Winchester and in many castles
such as Durham, London's White Tower and Newcastle. In church
architecture the Norman style developed during the Middle Ages, into Gothic, e.g, Lincoln Cathedral and then Perpendicular. From the
Tudor period the most significant building still remaining is Hampton Court Palace. Hardwick Hall, Longleat and Burghley House show how
the wealthy and powerful were now, in more settled times, building great homes for
themselves, rather than military strongholds and castles. A major
change came when James I commissioned Inigo Jones to build the Queens House in Greenwich. The restoration of the monarchy in 1660
brought one of the greatest periods of English architecture, dominated by Sir
Christopher Wren. The Great Fire of London in 1666 gave Wren enormous scope for new work
of which the most famous is St Paul's Cathedral. During the
Georgian period classical architectural styles became dominant. Landscaping became fashionable with Capability Brown and
Humphrey Repton's design for Chatsworth, Blenheim and Stowe among the finest. Bath is
one of the best examples of Georgian urban design. Of the
great houses, Chiswick House, built for Lord Burlington who had been impressed by Palladio's architecture during a visit to
Italy, was particularly influential. Victorian
Britain saw completely new types of architecture: railway stations, town halls, factories and glass houses (Kew Gardens) Two
influential movements at the end of the Victorian age and in the early
twentieth century were Arts and Crafts and Art Nouveau. Arts and
Craft inspired by William Morris was a return to simplicity and is probably best known through the country houses of Sir Edwin Lutyens. Art Nouveau
was more influential in Europe than the UK, but Glasgow's Charles Rennie Mackintosh was a significant designer and architect
in this style. After the
First World War one of the major influences on architecture was the Modern Movement. Its followers drew their inspiration from
the USA and its skyscrapers and industrial buildings and, particularly, from Le
Corbusier. During the
1950s and 60s much inner city housing was torn down in slum clearance programmes and replaced by high-rise tower blocks. These
failed as family housing and many, in their turn, were pulled down in the eighties and
nineties. Current
architecture is characterized by the dramatic shapes and structures made possible by modern materials and computerized structural
design. Sir Richard Roger's Lloyd's Building and Sir Norman Foster's Stanstead Airport
and Air Force Museum are excellent examples. 英国人口
： 热 The population of the UK was estimated at 60,441,457 in
2005. Since the Norman Conquest there have been no invasions but there have been
many smaller groups of new arrivals. Some, such as the Huguenots (French
Protestants) or the Indian-Ugandans have been fleeing persecution. Others, such
as the arrivals from the Caribbean and from the Indian subcontinent have been seeking
work. The UK population is now strongly multiracial 英国宗教
： 热 Britain's
Christian tradition is a varied one. Roman Catholicism was the official
religion until Henry VIII's dispute with the Pope over his wish to
divorce Catherine of Aragon. Henry broke with Rome and declared himself the Head of the
Church of England. The rise of
Protestantism coincided with Henry VIII's argument with Rome. In Scotland a particularly stern form of Protestantism gained
control (John Knox, Calvinism). In Ireland the settlement of Protestant English
and Scots in the North imported a religious difference. During the
Industrial Revolution reforming Protestant movements such as Methodism took particular hold among the poor, in the north
and in Wales. Today in
the UK we have a multi-faith society including Baptists, the Society of Friends (Quakers), Jews, Muslims, Hindus, and Sikhs. 英国饮食文化
： 热 Today people in the UK eat a more varied diet than ever
before. As well as the regional diets of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland the
many immigrant communities have introduced their cuisines to the previously
unadventurous Britons: Chinese, Greek, Indian, Italian, Thai, American fast foods
such as pizza, hamburgers and fried chicken have to some extent displaced the
traditional fast food of fish and chips. Because of
the climate and the Germanic origins of many of its early people, the UK has been a traditionally beer drinking rather than a wine
drinking country. Nevertheless, in recent years, vineyards in the south of England have
proved successful. In the west of England the traditional drink is cider, rather than beer.
Over Britain as a whole, however, the traditional drink is tea. 英国经济
： 热 Britain's
wealth was founded not only on its own natural resources such as coal and iron which made the Industrial Revolution possible but more
recently on commerce and trade around the world. Merchant venturers and then the
trading companies such as Hudson's Bay and the East India Company laid down the routes
and trading posts that eventually grew into the British Empire. Manufacturing
industries were world leaders: for example the shipbuilding industry which built such ships as the Cutty Sark, the Great Eastern
and the Queen Elizabeth. The banking
system (Bank of England 1694, the Bank of Scotland 1696), the Stock Exchange and new company structures were important
developments in commerce that helped make possible the rise of the British economy to the
point at which, in Victorian times, it was called "the workshop of the world". During the
twentieth century, particularly in the postwar years, the British economy has changed dramatically. Nowadays
only around seventeen percent of the labour force work in manufacturing industry. The service industries such as finance, media,
leisure, transport and healthcare employ about seventy per cent of the work force
and only around one per cent works in agriculture. The UK has large reserves of oil
and natural gas, as well as a still significant coal industry. Tourism has
become an important contributor to the national economy. Overseas visitors are particularly attracted by London and by the
heritage and legends of historic Britain. The cathedral town of Canterbury is a good example
of what Britain has to offer the tourist and the beaches and countryside of Cornwall are
well worth a visit. In recent
years fashion and pop music have become major export earners for the UK. Since 1973
the main influence on the UK economy has been membership of the European Union. 英国体育
： 热 Sport has long been important in the UK. The public school
system placed particular emphasis on sporting endeavour. Golf was
invented in Scotland, cricket and tennis in England. Fives and squash were started at public schools, as was Rugby Football (at
Rugby School). Many sports
had their first official rules laid down in the UK. For example, the rules of modern boxing were drawn up by the Marquess of
Queensbury. The UK's
most popular sport is football. Britain won the World Cup in 1966. The second major winter game is rugby (in two forms: league and
union). England won the Rugby World Cup in Sydney in 2003. Cricket is
the major summer sport and, like football, has been adopted around the world. In particular it has been popular in the countries of
the former British Empire, for example, Australia, India, South Africa and the West Indies. Horse
racing and show jumping are major spectator sports. Racing is a favourite pastime with the Queen and members of the royal family while
Princess Anne, the Princess Royal, has represented the UK in show jumping at
the Olympics. Athletics,
because of indoor facilities, is now an all-year-round sport. The UK has twice staged the Olympics (1908 and 1948); the London
marathon is among the world's most important marathons. Some UK events in other sports are
also of world importance: for example Wimbledon in tennis and Henley Regatta in
rowing. Motor sports
which include rallying, speedway and Formula One are very popular spectator sports. 英国节日
： 热 The United Kingdom celebrates the major Christian festivals
(Christmas and Easter) and New Year. Ethnic minorities observe their religious
obligations, festivals and New Year celebrations. On 5 November the traditional Guy Fawkes
celebrations with bonfires and fireworks remember the Gunpowder Plot of 1605. The Edinburgh
Festival, held every summer, is the UK's most important arts festival. The main
cultural festival of Wales is the Eisteddfod. 英国艺术
： 热 The UK's main strengths in the arts has been in literature,
the theatre and music. Painting
styles have run from the Lindisfarne Gospels, with their Celtic decorations to the classic painters such as Constable, Gainsborough and
Reynolds and then Blake and Turner and through the Victorians such as Millais,
Burne-Jones, and Morris to the moderns such as David Hockney and Bridget Riley. In
sculpture, Henry Moore is undoubtedly the UK's most significant artist. English has
become the world's most successful international language, a fact that has given writers in the language a world audience: Jane
Austen, Charles Dickens, and the Bronte sisters are probably the best known classical
novelists. In Scotland, Sir Walter Scott, Robert Burns and Robert Louis Stevenson and in
Wales Dylan Thomas are the major names. In the
theatre it is, of course, Shakespeare who outshines all his contemporaries such as Christopher Marlowe to the more recent playwrights
such as Osborne and Pinter. Shakespeare
is as respected for his poetry as for his plays. Other leading poets include Spenser, from Shakespeare's time, Alexander Pope,
and Dryden and then Byron, Shelley, Coleridge and Wordsworth. Kipling is the
best known Victorian poet. In this century, the "war poets" Owen and Sassoon
were followed by the poets of the thirties such as Auden and Spender. Ted Hughes and Philip
Larkin have been among the leading poets in recent years. The UK's
musical heritage, at the beginning of the 1960s was best known for classical composers such as Elgar and for the light opera of
Gilbert and Sullivan. Then came the explosion of British pop music, the Beatles (Hey
Jude, Help and Ticket to Ride) and the Rolling Stones. Finally, in
cinema and television - art forms of the twentieth century, the UK has played a major role with Alfred Hitchcock the UK's most
celebrated film director. 英国简史(英文)
： 热 History Until 1707,
this section deals primarily with English history. England and Wales were formally united in 1536. In 1707, when Great Britain was
created by the Act of Union between Scotland and England, English history became part of
British history. For the early history of Scotland and Wales, see separate articles.
See also Ireland; Ireland, Northern; and the tables entitled Rulers of England and
Great Britain and Prime Ministers of Great Britain. Early
Period to the Norman Conquest Little is
known about the earliest inhabitants of Britain, but the remains of their dolmens and barrows and the great stone circles at
Stonehenge and Avebury are evidence of the developed culture of the prehistoric
Britons. They had developed a Bronze Age culture by the time the first Celtic invaders
(early 5th cent. B.C.) brought their energetic Iron Age culture to Britain. It is believed
that Julius Caesar's successful military campaign in Britain in 54 B.C. was aimed at
preventing incursions into Gaul from the island. In A.D. 43
the emperor Claudius began the Roman conquest of Britain, establishing bases at present-day London and Colchester. By A.D. 85, Rome
controlled Britain south of the Clyde River. There were a number of revolts in the
early years of the conquest, the most famous being that of Boadicea. In the 2d cent.
A.D., Hadrian's Wall was constructed as a northern defense line. Under the Roman
occupation towns developed, and roads were built to ensure the success of the military
occupation. These roads were the most lasting Roman achievement in Britain (see Watling
Street), long serving as the basic arteries of overland transportation in England.
Colchester, Lincoln, and Gloucester were founded by the Romans as colonia, settlements of
ex-legionaries. Trade
contributed to town prosperity; wine, olive oil, plate, and furnishings were imported, and lead, tin, iron, wheat, and wool were exported.
This trade declined with the economic dislocation of the late Roman Empire and the
withdrawal of Roman troops to meet barbarian threats elsewhere. The garrisons had been
consumers of the products of local artisans as well as of imports; as they were
disbanded, the towns decayed. Barbarian incursions became frequent. In 410 an appeal to
Rome for military aid was refused, and Roman officials subsequently were withdrawn. As Rome
withdrew its legions from Britain, Germanic peoples〞the Anglo-Saxons and the Jutes〞began
raids that turned into great waves of invasion and settlement in the later 5th cent. The Celts fell back into Wales and
Cornwall and across the English Channel to Brittany, and the loosely knit tribes of the
newcomers gradually coalesced into a heptarchy of kingdoms (see Kent, Sussex, Essex,
Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria). Late in the
8th cent., and with increasing severity until the middle of the 9th cent., raiding Vikings (known in English history as Danes) harassed
coastal England and finally, in 865, launched a full-scale invasion. They were
first effectively checked by King Alfred of Wessex and were with great difficulty confined to
the Danelaw, where their leaders divided land among the soldiers for settlement.
Alfred's successors conquered the Danelaw to form a united England, but new Danish
invasions late in the 10th cent. overcame ineffective resistance (see ?thelred, 965?——1016).
The Dane Canute ruled all England by 1016. At the expiration of the Scandinavian
line in 1042, the Wessex dynasty (see Edward the Confessor) regained the throne. The
conquest of England in 1066 by William, duke of Normandy (William I of England),
ended the Anglo-Saxon period. The freeman
(ceorl) of the early Germanic invaders had been responsible to the king and superior to the serf. Subsequent centuries of war
and subsistence farming, however, had forced the majority of freemen into serfdom, or
dependence on the aristocracy of lords and thanes, who came to enjoy a large
measure of autonomous control over manors granted them by the king (see manorial
system). The central government evolved from tribal chieftainships to become a
monarchy in which executive and judicial powers were usually vested in the king. The
aristocracy made up his witan, or council of advisers (see witenagemot). The king set up
shires as units of local government ruled by earldormen. In some instances these
earldormen became powerful hereditary earls, ruling several shires. Subdivisions of
shires were called hundreds. There were shire and hundred courts, the former headed by
sheriffs, the latter by reeves. Agriculture was the principal industry, but the
Danes were aggressive traders, and towns increased in importance starting in the 9th cent. The
Anglo-Saxons had been Christianized by missionaries from Rome and from Ireland, and the influence of Christianity became strongly
manifest in all phases of culture (see Anglo-Saxon literature). Differences between
Irish and continental religious customs were decided in favor of the Roman forms at the
Synod of Whitby (663). Monastic communities, outstanding in the later 7th and in
the 8th cent. and strongly revived in the 10th, developed great proficiency in
manuscript illumination. Church scholars, such as Bede, Alcuin, and Aelfric〞as well as King Alfred himself〞preserved and advanced learning. Medieval
England A new era
in English history began with the Norman Conquest. William I introduced Norman-style political and military feudalism. He used the
feudal system to collect taxes, employed the bureaucracy of the church to strengthen the
central government, and made the administration of royal justice more efficient. After the
death of William's second son, Henry I, the country was subjected to a period of civil war that ended one year before the accession
of Henry II in 1154. Henry II's reign was marked by the sharp conflict between king and
church that led to the murder of Thomas 角
Becket. Henry carried out great judicial reforms that increased the power and scope of the royal courts. During his reign, in
1171, began the English conquest of Ireland. As part of his inheritance he brought
to the throne Anjou, Normandy, and Aquitaine. The defense and enlargement of
these French territories engaged the energies of successive English kings. In their
need for money the kings stimulated the growth of English towns by selling them
charters of liberties. Conflict
between kings and nobles, which had begun under Richard I, came to a head under John, who made unprecedented financial demands
and whose foreign and church policies were unsuccessful. A temporary victory of
the nobles bore fruit in the most noted of all English constitutional documents, the
Magna Carta (1215). The recurring baronial wars of the 13th cent. (see Barons' War;
Montfort, Simon de, earl of Leicester) were roughly contemporaneous with the first steps
in the development of Parliament. Edward I
began the conquest of Wales and Scotland. He also carried out an elaborate reform and expansion of the central courts and of
other aspects of the legal system. The Hundred Years War with France began (1337) in
the reign of Edward III. The Black Death (see plague) first arrived in 1348 and had a
tremendous effect on economic life, hastening the breakdown (long since under
way) of the manorial and feudal systems, including the institution of serfdom. At the
same time the fast-growing towns and trades gave new prominence to the burgess and
artisan classes. In the 14th
cent. the English began exporting their wool, rather than depending on foreign traders of English wool. Later in the century, trade
in woolen cloth began to gain on the raw wool trade. The confusion resulting from such
rapid social and economic change fostered radical thought, typified in the teachings
of John Wyclif (or Wycliffe; see also Lollardry, and the revolt led by Wat Tyler. Dynastic
wars (see Roses, Wars of the), which weakened both the nobility and the monarchy in the
15th cent., ended with the accession of the Tudor family in 1485. Tudor
England The reign
of the Tudors (1485——1603) is
one of the most fascinating periods in English history. Henry VII restored political order and the
financial solvency of the crown, bequeathing his son, Henry VIII, a full exchequer. In 1536,
Henry VIII brought about the political union of England and Wales. Henry and his minister
Thomas Cromwell greatly expanded the central administration. During Henry's reign
commerce flourished and the New Learning of the Renaissance came to England. Several
factors〞the revival of Lollardry, anticlericalism, the influence of humanism, and
burgeoning nationalism〞climaxed
by the pope's refusal to grant Henry a divorce from Katharine of Arag车n so that he
could remarry and have a male heir〞led
the king to break with Roman Catholicism and establish the Church of England. As part of
the English Reformation (1529——39), Henry
suppressed the orders of monks and friars and secularized their property. Although
these actions aroused some popular opposition (see Pilgrimage of Grace), Henry's
judicious use of Parliament helped secure support for his policies and set important
precedents for the future of Parliament. England moved farther toward Protestantism under
Edward VI; after a generally hated Roman Catholic revival under Mary I, the
Roman tie was again cut under Elizabeth I, who attempted without complete success to
moderate the religious differences among her people. The
Elizabethan age was one of great artistic and intellectual achievement, its
most notable figure being William Shakespeare. National pride
basked in the exploits of Sir Francis Drake, Sir John Hawkins, and the other ※sea dogs.§ Overseas trading companies were formed and colonization attempts in the New
World were made by Sir Humphrey Gilbert and Sir Walter Raleigh. A long conflict
with Spain, growing partly out of commercial and maritime rivalry and partly out of religious
differences, culminated in the defeat of the Spanish Armada (1588), although the war
continued another 15 years. Inflated
prices (caused, in part, by an influx of precious metals from the New World) and the reservation of land by the process of inclosure for
sheep pasture (stimulated by the expansion of the wool trade) caused great changes in the
social and economic structure of England. The enclosures displaced many tenant
farmers from their lands and produced a class of wandering, unemployed ※sturdy beggars.§ The Elizabethan poor laws were an attempt to deal with this problem. Rising
prices affected the monarchy as well, by reducing the value of its fixed customary and
hereditary revenues. The country gentry were enriched by the inclosures and by their
purchase of former monastic lands, which were also used for grazing. The gentry
became leaders in what, toward the end of Elizabeth's reign, was an increasingly
assertive Parliament. The Stuarts The
accession in 1603 of the Stuart James I, who was also James VI of Scotland, united the thrones of England and Scotland. The chronic need
for money of both James and his son, Charles I, which they attempted to meet by
unusual and extralegal means; their espousal of the divine right of kings; their
determination to enforce their high Anglican preferences in religion; and their use of royal
courts such as Star Chamber, which were not bound by the common law, to persecute
opponents, together produced a bitter conflict with Parliament that culminated (1642) in
the English civil war. In the war
the parliamentarians, effectively led at the end by Oliver Cromwell, defeated the royalists. The king was tried for treason and
beheaded (1649). The monarchy was abolished, and the country was governed by the
Rump Parliament, the remainder of the last Parliament (the Long Parliament)
Charles had called (1640), until 1653, when Cromwell dissolved it and established the
Protectorate. Cromwell brutally subjugated Ireland, made a single commonwealth of Scotland
and England, and strengthened England's naval power and position in
international trade. When he died (1658), his son, Richard, succeeded as Lord Protector but
governed ineffectively. The threat
of anarchy led to an invitation by a newly elected Parliament (the Convention Parliament) to Charles, son of Charles I, to
become king, ushering in the Restoration (1660). It was significant that Parliament had
summoned the king, rather than the reverse; it was now clear that to be successful the
king had to cooperate with Parliament. The Whig and Tory parties developed in the
Restoration period. Although Charles II was personally popular, the old issues of
religion, money, and the royal prerogative came to the fore again. Parliament revived
official Anglicanism (see Clarendon Code), but Charles's private sympathies lay with
Catholicism. He attempted to bypass Parliament in the matter of revenue by receiving
subsidies from Louis XIV of France. Charles's
brother and successor, James II, was an avowed Catholic. James tried to strengthen his position in Parliament by tampering with the
methods of selecting members; he put Catholics in high university positions,
maintained a standing army (which later deserted him), and claimed the right to suspend
laws. The birth (1688) of a male heir, who, it was assumed, would be raised as a
Catholic, precipitated a crisis. In the
Glorious Revolution, Whig and Tory leaders offered the throne to William of Orange (William III), whose Protestant wife, Mary, was
James's daughter. William and Mary were proclaimed king and queen by Parliament in 1689.
The Bill of Rights confirmed that sovereignty resided in Parliament. The Act of
Toleration (1689) extended religious liberty to all Protestant sects; in subsequent
years, religious passions slowly subsided. By the Act
of Settlement (1701) the succession to the English throne was determined. Since 1603, with the exception of the 1654——60
portion of the interregnum, Scotland and England had remained two kingdoms
united only in the person of the monarch. When it appeared that William's
successor, Queen Anne, Mary's Protestant sister, would not have an heir, the Scottish
succession became of concern, since the Scottish Parliament had not passed legislation
corresponding to the Act of Settlement. England feared that under a separate monarch
Scotland might ally itself with France, or worse still, permit a restoration of the Catholic
heirs of James II〞although a non-Protestant succession had been barred by the Scottish
Parliament. On its part, Scotland wished to achieve economic equality with England.
The result was the Act of Union (1707), by which the two kingdoms became one. Scotland
obtained representation in (what then became) the British Parliament at Westminster,
and the Scottish Parliament was abolished. The Growth
of Empire and Eighteenth-Century Political Developments The
beginnings of Britain's national debt (1692) and the founding of the Bank of England (1694) were closely tied with the nation's more
active role in world affairs. Britain's overseas possessions (see British Empire) were
augmented by the victorious outcome of the War of the Spanish Succession, ratified in
the Peace of Utrecht (1713). Britain emerged from the War of the Austrian Succession and
from the Seven Years War as the possessor of the world's greatest empire. The peace
of 1763 (see Paris, Treaty of) confirmed British predominance in India and North
America. Settlements were made in Australia toward the end of the 18th cent.; however, a
serious loss was sustained when 13 North American colonies broke away in the American
Revolution. Additional colonies were won in the wars against Napoleon I, notable
for the victories of Horatio Nelson and Arthur Wellesley, duke of Wellington. In Ireland,
the Irish Parliament was granted independence in 1782, but in 1798 there was an Irish rebellion. A vain attempt to solve the
centuries-old Irish problem was the abrogation of the Irish Parliament and the union (1801) of
Great Britain and Ireland, with Ireland represented in the British Parliament. Domestically
the long ministry of Sir Robert Walpole (1721——42),
during the reigns of George I and George II, was a period of relative
stability that saw the beginnings of the development of the cabinet as the chief
executive organ of government. The 18th
cent. was a time of transition in the growth of the British parliamentary system. The monarch still played a very active role in
government, choosing and dismissing ministers as he wished. Occasionally, sentiment
in Parliament might force an unwanted minister on him, as when George III was forced to
choose Rockingham in 1782, but the king could dissolve Parliament and use his
considerable patronage power to secure a new one more amenable to his views. Great
political leaders of the late 18th cent., such as the earl of Chatham (see Chatham, William Pitt, 1st earl of) and his son William
Pitt, could not govern in disregard of the crown. Important movements for political and social
reform arose in the second half of the 18th cent. George III's arrogant and somewhat
anachronistic conception of the crown's role produced a movement among Whigs in
Parliament that called for a reform and reduction of the king's power. Edmund Burke was a
leader of this group, as was the eccentric John Wilkes. The Tory Pitt was also a
reformer. These men also opposed Britain's colonial policy in North America. Outside
Parliament, religious dissenters (who were excluded from political office), intellectuals, and others advocated sweeping reforms of
established practices and institutions. Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations, advocating
laissez-faire, appeared in 1776, the same year as the first publication by Jeremy Bentham,
the founder of utilitarianism. The cause of reform, however, was greatly set back by the
French Revolution and the ensuing wars with France, which greatly alarmed British
society. Burke became Britain's leading intellectual opponent of the Revolution, while many
British reformers who supported (to varying degrees) the changes in France were
branded by British public opinion as extreme Jacobins. Economic,
Social, and Political Change George III
was succeeded by George IV and William IV. During the last ten years of his reign, George III was insane, and sovereignty was
exercised by the future George IV. This was the ※Regency§ period. In the mid-18th
cent., wealth and power in Great Britain still resided in the aristocracy, the landed gentry,
and the commercial oligarchy of the towns. The mass of the population consisted of
agricultural laborers, semiliterate and landless, governed locally (in England) by justices of
the peace. The countryside was fragmented into semi-isolated agricultural villages and
provincial capitals. However,
the period of the late 18th and early 19th cent. was a time of dynamic economic change. The factory system, the discovery and use
of steam power, improved inland transportation (canals and turnpikes), the ready
supply of coal and iron, a remarkable series of inventions, and men with capital who
were eager to invest〞all these elements came together to produce the epochal change
known as the Industrial Revolution. The impact
of these developments on social conditions was enormous, but the most significant socioeconomic fact of all from 1750 to 1850 was
the growth of population. The population of Great Britain (excluding Northern Ireland)
grew from an estimated 7,500,000 in 1750 to about 10,800,000 in 1801 (the year of
the first national census) and to about 23,130,000 in 1861. The growing population
provided needed labor for industrial expansion and was accompanied by rapid
urbanization. Urban problems multiplied. At the same time a new period of inclosures
(1750——1810; this time to increase the arable farmland) deprived small farmers of
their common land. The Speenhamland System (begun in 1795), which supplemented
wages according to the size of a man's family and the price of bread, and the Poor
Law of 1834 were harsh revisions of the relief laws. The social
unrest following these developments provided a fertile field for Methodism, which had been begun by John Wesley in the
mid-18th cent. Methodism was especially popular in the new industrial areas, in some of
which the Church of England provided no services. It has been theorized that by
pacifying social unrest Methodism contributed to the prevention of political and social
revolution in Britain. In the
1820s the reform impulse that had been largely stifled during the French Revolution revived. Catholic Emancipation (1829) restored to
Catholics political and civil rights. In 1833 slavery in the British Empire was abolished.
(The slave trade had been ended in 1807.) Parliamentary reform was made imperative by
the new patterns of population distribution and by the great growth during the
industrial expansion in the size and wealth of the middle class, which lacked commensurate
political power. The general elections that followed the death of George IV brought to
power a Whig ministry committed to parliamentary reform. The Reform Bill of 1832
(see under Reform Acts) enfranchised the middle class and redistributed seats to
give greater representation to London and the urban boroughs of N England. Other
parliamentary legislation established the institutional basis for efficient city
government and municipal services and for government inspection of factories, schools, and
poorhouses. The competitive
advantage British exports had gained from the Industrial Revolution lent new force to the arguments for free trade. The efforts
of the Anti-Corn-Law League, organized by Richard Cobden and John Bright, succeeded in
1846 when Robert Peel was converted to the cause of free trade, and the corn laws
were repealed. But Chartism, a mass movement for more thorough political
reform, was unsuccessful (1848). Further important reforms were delayed nearly 20
years. The Reform
Bill of 1867, sponsored by Disraeli and the Conservatives for political reasons, enfranchised the urban working classes and was
followed shortly (under Gladstone and the Liberals) by enactment of the secret
ballot and the first steps toward a national education system. In 1884 a third Reform Bill
extended the vote to agricultural laborers. (Women could not vote until 1918.) In the 1880s
trade unions, which had first appeared earlier in the century, grew larger and more
militant as increasing numbers of unskilled workers were unionized. A coalition of labor and
socialist groups, organized in 1900, became the Labour party in 1906. In the 19th cent.
Britain's economy took on its characteristic patterns. Trade deficits, incurred as the
value of food imports exceeded the value of exports such as textiles, iron, steel, and
coal, were overcome by income from shipping, insurance services, and foreign investments. Victorian
Foreign Policy The reign
of Victoria (1837——1901)
covered the period of Britain's commercial and industrial leadership of the world and of its greatest
political influence. Initial steps toward granting self-government for Canada were taken at the
start of Victoria's reign, while in India conquest and expansion continued. Great
Britain's commercial interests, advanced by the British navy, brought on in 1839 the first
Opium War with China, which opened five Chinese ports to British trade and made Hong
Kong a British colony. The aggressive diplomacy of Lord Palmerston in the 1850s and
60s, including involvement in the Crimean War, was popular at home. From 1868
to 1880 political life in Great Britain was dominated by Benjamin Disraeli and William E. Gladstone, who differed dramatically over
domestic and foreign policy. Disraeli, who had attacked Gladstone for failing to defend
Britain's imperial interests, pursued an active foreign policy, determined by
considerations of British prestige and the desire to protect the route to India. Under Disraeli
(1874——80) the British acquired the Transvaal, the Fiji Islands, and Cyprus, fought frontier
wars in Africa and Afghanistan, and became the largest shareholder in the Suez
Canal Company. Gladstone strongly condemned Disraeli's expansionist
policies, but his later ministries involved Britain in Egypt, Afghanistan, and Uganda. Gladstone's
first ministry (1868——74) had
disestablished the Church of England in Ireland, and in 1886, Gladstone unsuccessfully advocated
Home Rule for Ireland. The proposal split the Liberal party and overturned his
ministry. In the last decades of the 19th cent. competition with other European powers and
enchantment with the glories of empire led Britain to acquire vast territories in Asia and
Africa. By the end of the century the country was entangled in the South African War
(1899——1902). Great Britain's period of hegemony was ending, as both Germany and the
United States were surpassing it in industrial production. World War I
and Its Aftermath Victoria
was succeeded by her son Edward VII, then by his son, George V. The Liberals, in power 1905——15, enacted much social
legislation, including old-age pensions, health and unemployment insurance, child health
laws, and more progressive taxation. The budget sponsored by David Lloyd George to
finance the Liberals' program brought on a parliamentary struggle that ended in a drastic
reduction of the power of the House of Lords (1911). Growing military and economic rivalry
with Germany led Great Britain to form ententes with its former colonial rivals,
France and Russia (see Triple Alliance and Triple Entente). In 1914,
Germany's violation of Belgium's neutrality, which since 1839 Britain had been pledged to uphold, caused Britain to go to war against
Germany (see World War I). Although the British emerged as victors, the war took a
terrible toll on the nation. About 750,000 men had died and seven million tons of shipping had
been lost. In the peace settlement (see Versailles, Treaty of) Britain acquired, as
League of Nations mandates, additional territories in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East.
But the four years of fighting had drained the nation of wealth and manpower. The postwar
years were a time of great moral disillusionment and material difficulties. To the international problems stemming
directly from the war, such as disarmament, reparations, and war debts, were added complex
domestic economic problems, the task of reorganizing the British Empire, and
the tangled Irish problem. Northern Ireland was created in 1920, and the Irish Free
State (see Ireland, Republic of) in 1921——22. The basic
domestic economic problem of the post——World
War I years was the decline of Britain's traditional export industries, which
made it more difficult for the country to pay for its imports of foods and raw materials. A
Labour government, under Ramsay MacDonald, was in power for the first time briefly in
1924. In 1926 the country suffered a general strike. Severe economic stress increased
during the worldwide economic depression of the late 1920s and early 30s. During
the financial crisis of 1931, George V asked MacDonald to head a coalition government,
which took the country off the gold standard, ceased the repayment of war debts, and
supplanted free trade with protective tariffs modified by preferential treatment within
the empire (see Commonwealth of Nations) and with treaty nations. Recovery
from the depression began to be evident in 1933. Although old export industries such as coal mining and cotton manufacturing
remained depressed, other industries, such as electrical engineering, automobile
manufacture, and industrial chemistry, were developed or strengthened. George V was
succeeded by Edward VIII, after whose abdication (1936) George VI came to the throne.
In 1937, Neville Chamberlain became prime minister. The years
prior to the outbreak of World War II were characterized by the ineffective attempts to stem the rising tide of German and Italian
aggression. The League of Nations, in which Britain was a leader, declined rapidly by
failing to take decisive action, and British prestige fell further because of a policy of
nonintervention in the Spanish civil war. Appeasement of the Axis powers, which was the policy of
the Chamberlain government, reached its climactic failure (as became evident
later) in the Munich Pact of Sept., 1938. Great Britain had begun to rearm in 1936 and,
after Munich, instituted conscription. With the signing of the Soviet-German pact of
Aug., 1939, war was recognized as inevitable. World War
II and the Welfare State On Sept. 1,
1939, Germany attacked Poland. Great Britain and France declared war on Germany on Sept. 3, and all the dominions of the
Commonwealth except Ireland followed suit (see World War II). Chamberlain broadened his
cabinet to include Labour representatives, but after German victories in Scandinavia
he resigned (May, 1940) and was replaced by Winston S. Churchill. France fell in June,
1940, but the heroic rescue of a substantial part of the British army from Dunkirk
(May——June) enabled Britain, now virtually alone, to remain in the war. The nation
withstood intensive bombardment (see Battle of Britain), but ultimately the Royal Air Force was able to drive off the Luftwaffe.
Extensive damage was sustained, and great urban areas, including large sections of London,
were devastated. The British people rose to a supreme war effort; American aid (see
lend-lease) provided vital help. In 1941, Great Britain gained two allies when Germany
invaded the USSR (June) and the United States entered the war following the Japanese attack
on Pearl Harbor (Dec. 7). Britain declared war on Japan on Dec. 8. The wartime
alliance of Great Britain, the USSR, and the United States led to the formation of the United Nations and brought about the defeat
of Germany (May, 1945) and Japan (Sept., 1945). The British economy suffered
severely from the war. Manpower losses had been severe, including about 420,000
dead; large urban areas had to be rebuilt, and the industrial plant needed
reconstruction and modernization. Leadership in world trade, shipping, and banking had passed
to the United States, and overseas investments had been largely liquidated to pay the
cost of the world wars. This was a serious blow to the British economy because the income
from these activities had previously served to offset the import-export deficit. In 1945,
the first general elections in ten years were held (they had been postponed because of the war) and Clement Attlee and the Labour party
were swept into power. Austere wartime economic controls were continued, and in
1946 the United States extended a large loan. The United States made further
assistance available in 1948 through the Marshall Plan. In 1949 the pound was devalued
(in terms of U.S. dollars, from $4.03 to $2.80) to make British exports more
competitive. The Labour
government pursued from the start a vigorous program of nationalization of industry and extension of social
services. The Bank of England, the coal industry, communications facilities, civil aviation,
electricity, and internal transport were nationalized, and in 1948 a vast program of socialized
medicine was instituted (many of these programs followed the recommendations of
wartime commissions). Also in 1948, Labour began the nationalization of the steel
industry, but the law did not become effective until 1951, after Churchill and the
Conservatives had returned to office. The Conservatives denationalized the trucking
industry and all but one of the steel companies and ended direct economic controls, but they
retained Labour's social reforms. Elizabeth II succeeded George VI in 1952. In postwar
foreign affairs Great Britain's loss of power was also evident. Britain had undertaken to help Greece and Turkey resist Communist
subversion, but the financial burden proved too great, and the task was assumed (1947) by
the United States. The British Empire underwent rapid transformation. British India
was partitioned (1947) into two self-governing states, India and Pakistan. In Palestine,
unable to maintain peace between Arabs and Jews, Britain turned its mandate over to
the United Nations. Groundwork was laid for the independence of many other
colonies; like India and Pakistan, most of them remained in the Commonwealth after
independence. Great Britain joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (1949)
and fought on the United Nations' side in the Korean War (1950——53). The
Conservative governments of Churchill and his successor, Anthony Eden (1955), were beset by numerous difficulties in foreign
affairs, including the nationalization (1951) of British petroleum fields and
refineries in Iran, the Mau Mau uprising in Kenya (1952——56), turmoil in Cyprus (1954——59),
and the problem of apartheid in South Africa. The nationalization (1956) of the
Suez Canal by Egypt touched off a crisis in which Britain, France, and Israel
invaded Egypt. Opposition by the United States brought about a halt of the invasion and
withdrawal of the troops. The 1960s
and 70s Great
Britain helped to form (1959) the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), but in 1961 the government of Harold Macmillan announced its
decision to seek membership in the European Economic Community. Because of
French opposition as well as Britain's request for special considerations for the
countries of the Commonwealth and of EFTA, agreement on British entry was not
reached until 1971. Britain finally entered what had become the European
Community (now the European Union [EU]) in Jan., 1973. Labour
returned to power in 1964 under Harold Wilson, and the steel industry was renationalized. The country faced the compound economic problems
of a very unfavorable balance of trade, the instability of the pound
sterling, a lagging rate of economic growth, and inflationary wages and prices. A number
of sterling crises were followed by government controls and cutbacks. Britain
supported U.S. policy in Vietnam. The policy of granting independence to colonial possessions continued; however, Rhodesia (see
Zimbabwe) became a problem when its government, representing only the white minority,
unilaterally declared its independence in 1965. Another problem was Spain's demand for
the return of Gibraltar. A major crisis erupted in Northern Ireland in late 1968 when
Catholic civil-rights demonstrations turned into violent confrontations between
Catholics and Protestants. British army units were dispatched in an unsuccessful
attempt to restore calm. In 1972 the British government suspended the Northern Ireland
Parliament and government and assumed direct control of the province. The
Conservatives under Edward Heath returned to power in Britain in 1970. At the end of 1973 the country underwent its worst economic crisis
since World War II. The balance of payments deficit, after improving in the late
1960s, had worsened. Serious inflation had led to widespread labor unrest in the critical
coal-mining, railroad, and electrical industries, leading to a shortage of coal,
Britain's main energy source. A further blow, following the 1973 war in the Middle East, was
the reduction in oil shipments by several Arab states and a steep increase in the
price of oil. When coal
miners voted to strike in early 1974, Heath called an election in an attempt to bolster his position in resisting the miners'
demands. Neither Labour nor the Conservatives emerged from that election with a plurality in
the Commons. After an unsuccessful attempt to form a minority government, Heath
resigned (Mar., 1974) and was succeeded as prime minister by Harold Wilson, who moved
immediately to settle the miners' dispute. In the
elections of Oct., 1974, the Labour party won a slim majority; Wilson continued as prime minister. The early 1970s brought the
development of oil and natural gas fields in the North Sea, which helped to decrease Britain's
reliance on coal and foreign fuel. Wilson resigned and was succeeded by James
Callaghan in Apr., 1976. Neither Wilson nor Callaghan was able to resolve growing
disagreements with the unions, and unrest among industrial workers became the
dominant note of the late 1970s. In Mar., 1979, Callaghan left office after losing a
no-confidence vote. The
Thatcher Era to the Present In May,
1979, the Conservatives returned to power under the leadership of Margaret Thatcher, who set out to reverse the postwar trend
toward socialism by reducing government borrowing, freezing expenditures, and
privatizing state-owned industries. Thatcher also managed to break union resistance
through a series of laws that included the illegalization of secondary strikes and
boycotts. A violent, unsuccessful yearlong miners' strike (1984——85) was Thatcher's most
serious union confrontation. Thatcher
gained increased popularity by her actions in the Falkland Islands conflict with Argentina; she led the Conservatives to victory again
in 1983 and 1987, the latter an unprecedented third consecutive general election win. In
1985, Great Britain agreed that Hong Kong would revert to Chinese sovereignty in 1997.
In 1986, the Channel Tunnel project was begun with France; the rail link with the
European mainland opened in 1994. A decade of
Thatcher's economic policies resulted in a marked disparity between the developed southern economy and the decaying industrial
centers of the north. Her unpopular stands on some issues, such as her opposition to
greater British integration in Europe, caused a Conservative party revolt that led her
to resign in Nov., 1990, whereupon John Major became party leader and prime minister.
Despite a lingering recession, the Conservatives retained power in the 1992
general election. A peace
initiative opened by Prime Minister Major in 1993 led to cease-fires in 1994 by the Irish Republican Army and Loyalist paramilitaries in
Northern Ireland. Peace efforts foundered early in 1996, as the IRA again resorted
to terrorist bombings. In July, 1997, the IRA declared a new cease-fire, and talks begun in
September of that year included Sinn F谷in.
An accord reached in 1998 provided for a new regional assembly to be established in Belfast, but formation of the government
was hindered by disagreement over guerrilla disarmament. With resolution of
those issues late in 1999, direct rule was ended in Northern Ireland, but tensions over
disarmament have led to several lengthy suspensions of home rule since then. The Major
government was beset by internal scandals and by an intraparty rift over the degree of British participation in the European Union
(EU), but Major called a Conservative party leadership election for July, 1995, and
easily triumphed. In Nov., 1995, three divisions of British Rail were sold off in
Britain's largest-ever privatization by direct sale. Britain's sometimes stormy relationship with
the EU was heightened in 1996 when an outbreak of ※mad
cow disease§ (see prion) in England led
the EU to ban the sale of British beef; the crisis eased when British plans
for controlling the disease were approved by the EU. Although the EU ban was ended in 1999,
France continued its own ban on British beef, causing a strain in British-French
relations and within the EU. In 2001, British livestock farmers were again hurt by an outbreak
of disease, this time foot-and-mouth disease. In the
elections of May, 1997, Labour won 418 seats in the House of Commons by following a centrist political strategy. Tony Blair, head of
what he called the ※New Labour§ party, became prime minister. In August, Britain
mourned Princess Diana, the former wife of Prince Charles, who was killed in a car
accident in Paris. Blair's pledge to decentralize government was endorsed in September, when
Scotland and Wales both voted to establish legislative bodies, giving them a
stronger voice in their domestic affairs. A bill passed by both houses of Parliament in 1999
stripped most hereditary peers of their right to sit and vote in the House of Lords;
the shape of the reconstituted upper chamber is to be studied by a commission. Blair and
Labour again trounced the Conservatives in June, 2001, though the victory was not so
much a vote of confidence in Labour as a rejection of the opposition. Following
the devastating Sept., 2001, terrorist attacks in the United States, the British government became the most visible international
supporter of the Bush administration in its war on terrorism. Government officials
visited Muslim nations to seek their participation in the campaign, and British forces
joined the Americans in launching attacks against Afghanistan after the Taliban government
refused to hand over Osama bin Laden. The Blair government was also a strong supporter
of the United States' position that military action should be taken against Iraq
if UN weapons inspections were not resumed under new, stricter conditions, and committed
British forces to the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq that began in Mar., 2003. Blair's
strong support for the invasion, and the failure to find any weapons of mass destruction in Iraq, were factors in Labour's third-place
finish in the June, 2004, local elections; the results reflected the British public's
dissatisfaction with the country's involvement in Iraq. Labour, and the Conservative party as
well, suffered losses in the subsequent European parliament elections, which saw the
anti-EU United Kingdom Independence party double its vote to 16%. In the 2005
parliamentary elections the issue of Iraq again hurt Blair and Labour, whose large
parliamentary majority was significantly reduced. Nonetheless, the election marked the
first time a Labour government had secured a third consecutive term at the
polls. On July, 7,
2005, London experienced four coordinated bombing on its underground and bus system that killed more 50 people and
injured some 700. The attacks, which broadly resembled the Mar., 2004, bombings in
Madrid, appeared to be the work of Islamic suicide bombers; three of the suspected
bombers were born in Britain. Evidence uncovered by the British police indicated
that the attacks may have been directed by a member of Al Qaeda. A second set of
suicide bombings was attempted later in the month, but the bombs failed to
detonate. 英国社会福利
： 热 社 会 福 利 "国民健康服务"为所有居民提供全套建立在公共基金之上的医疗服务，而不论其收入的 多少。"国民健康服务"由一系列的地方卫生当局和全英国的健康委员会掌管，由中央政府直 接负责。英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士"国民健康服务"五分之四的费用是由税收支付的，费用的 增长则是由于要满足越来越多的老年人口的需要。同时还要充分利用医疗技术的进步成果 为国民服务。这些经费还用于为一些特殊人群提供在社区而非医院的更多更适合的类型护 理，诸如老人和精神病患者以及有认智障的人群等。 "家庭健康服务"是由普通医师、牙医、眼科医师及社区医生共同提供给病人的服务，这 些人全部是独立开业者。每年在普通医师处问诊的有2.7亿人次，每年有大约600万人会光 顾药店。 门诊收费取决于不同类型诊治的费用，比如医师开的药物费用，以及牙科的治疗费等 等。不过85%的药方所开药物是免费的，因为医院对儿童、孕妇以及在过去一年生过孩子 的妇女、60岁及60岁以上的老人、低收入者及其它一些人群是不收费的，"国民健康服务" 的医院门诊也是免费的。病人可自由选择私人医疗护理，而医生、牙医、眼科医生和药剂 师也可自行开业。约有12.7%的英国人认购个人医疗保险项目。 医院和专家服务 地区性的普通医院提供全套的医院服务。大多数医院对其建筑规模进行了改造和扩建 ， "国民健康服务"有史以来最大的一个建筑项目目前正在兴建之中。 "国民健康服务"为突发疾病、意外事故以及医生的紧急求助提供免费的救护车服务。为 保护孕妇和幼儿的健康，"国民健康服务"同时还提供一些特别的预防服务，诸如免费的牙科 防护、给儿童接种预防某些传染性疾病的疫苗等等，以保护孕妇和儿童的身心健康。有关 计划生育的建议和方法则可以从医生和计划生育诊所免费获得。对乳腺癌和子宫颈癌易发 年龄的妇女则实行全国性普查。在抗癌服务方面，提高预防和有效诊治是当前的首要任务 。提供输血服务的血库每年可以从志愿献血者处采到300万份血样。 政府正在完善加快"国民健康服务"步入现代化的计划，应用一种综合保健的新制度，为 患者提供更快捷而高质量的服务。 健康战略 英国政府一贯强调增强体质与治疗疾病具有同等的重要性。一项新颁布的公共健康战 略就制定了增强全国人民体质的目标，明确指出了贫穷、恶劣的住房条件、失业及环境污 染对健康造成的影响。政府还在其他一系列领域中也制定了提高和改进的目标，包括冠心 病、中风、癌症、精神疾病和突发疾病。 吸烟是英国导致许多疾病和死亡的罪魁祸首，每年约有12万人被过早地夺去了生命。 减少抽烟人口，特别是儿童和青少年，是政府的当务之急。政府提高了烟税，并颁布了《 公共场所章程》，要为不吸烟的顾客改进酒馆、酒吧和餐馆的设施。烟草广告已遭禁，而 烟草商的赞助也大致将于2003年7月前终结。 政府同时还拟定了一套新的禁毒战略，专门用于帮助青少年抵制毒品、保护社区远离 与毒品有关的反社会行为和犯罪行为。通过治疗，帮助吸毒者戒毒、并制止毒品在市面上 的流通。政府还专设了一名反毒品协调员，负责配合打击毒品非法买卖和流通的行动，而" 毒品预防顾问服务"项目则在地方、区域乃至全国性的层面上推广以社区为基础的毒品预防 行动。 个人社会服务 地方政府和志愿组织为社区内的病弱者提供帮助和建议。这些人包括老人、残疾人和 精神病人、智障者、需要照顾的儿童以及遇到特殊困难的家庭等。个人社会服务由地方政 府掌管，由中央政府负责建立全国性的政策，发布各项指导原则及监督标准。最近对社区 护理条款所做的改革是帮助社区内的老弱病残者尽可能地在自己家中独立生活，只要他们 自己愿意。地方当局负责集资，并在对要求社会援助的社区成员做完相应评估后为其安排 护理服务。服务项目主要包括居住和日常护理、家政服务、送餐服务以及交通补助。 地方政府与家庭之间是伙伴关系，需为有孩子的家庭提供必要的帮助。他们还需为社 区内没有双亲或监护人的儿童、被遗弃的或父母无力抚养的儿童提供食宿。有未成年孩子 的家庭在尽到做父母的责任的同时，更要尽可能地与政府合作。社会服务工作的有效进行 取决于合格的、职业化的社会工作人员。 社会保障 政府的开支中有近三分之一都是用在社会保障项目上的，它为老、弱、病、残者，失 业者，离异妇女提供经济帮助，并帮助儿童和极低收入者。 政府正在对社会保障制度进行一次意义深远的全面改革，其核心目标为：有些援助取 决于资助收入的多少，这部分包括对病弱者、失业者、孕妇、离异妇女及退休的补助。另 外一些则无需动用社会捐助，而由税收提供经费，比如儿童的补助金，服务对象是每个家 庭的每一个孩子；对有孩子的低收入职工家庭提供税收信贷，对某些失去工作能力的人给 予收入津贴、为那些付不起房租的人提供住房补助以及一整套为残疾人及其看护者提供的 补助。在非捐助型的社会援助项目中，有些是与收入相关连的，对那些收入低于某个水平 线的人群实行。补助金同时也随通货膨胀率的升高而增长。 女性年满60岁，男性年满65岁，国家支付其退休金。将男女退休金支付年龄统一到65 岁开始的立法将用十多年的时间逐步完成，预计将从2010年4月份开始实行。 英国的医疗(英)
： 热 In Britain there is a National Health Service (NHS) which is
paid for by taxes and National Insurance(保险), and in
general people do not have to pay
for medical treatment. Every person is registered with a doctor in their local area, know
as general practitioner or GP. This means that their name is on the GP's list, and they may
make an appointment to see the doctor or may call the doctor out to visit them if
they are ill. People do sometimes have to pay part of
the cost of drugs that the doctor prescribes(开处方). GPs are trained in general medicine but are not specialists in any
particular subject. If a patient needs to see a specialist doctor, they must first go to their GP and then the GP
will make an appointment(预约) for the patient to see a specialist at
a hospital or clinic. Although
everyone in Britain can have free treatment under the National Health Service. It is also possible to have treatment done
privately, for which one has to pay; some people have private health insurance to help them pay for
private treatment. Under the NHS, people who need to go to hospital may have to
wait for a long time on a waiting list for their treatment. If they pay for the
treatment, they will probably get it quickly. Anyone who
is very ill can call an ambulance(救护车)
and get taken to hospital for free urgent medical treatment. Ambulances are a free service
in Britain. 英国的法律(英)
： 热 In both Britain and the US, when a person is accused of a
rime it must be shown that they are guilty "beyond reasonable doubt". A
person is always innocent(无罪) in the eyes of the law until they have been proved to be guilty by
a court they can sometimes ask for permission to APPEAL(上诉) to a higher court in the hope that it will change
this decision. Criminal
law in England and Wales When
someone is arrested (ARREST) by the police, a MAGISTRATE (=an official who judges cases in some types of courts) decides whether
there is enough EVIDENCE( 证据) against
the person for the case to go to court. If there is enough evidence and the case is a serious one, the person accused(控告) of the crime (called 'the accused(被告)') is sent
to a CROWN COURT for a TRIAL with a JUDGE and JURY (=12 members of the public who have to decide if the accused is
guilty(有罪的), then the judge decides the SENTENCE(判决) (2) (=punishment). If there is enough evidence against the accused but the crime is not a serious one (for
example a traffic offence) then the case is heard in a MAGISTRATES COURT. If found
guilty in the Crown Court the accused may apply to(请求) the COURT OF APPEAL (Criminal Division) where he or she will be heard by
a judge. Sometimes a HIGH COURT judge from the Queen's Bench Division assists in
dealing with criminal matters in the Court of Appeal or Crown Court. Criminal
law in Northern Ireland In Northern
Ireland, as in England and Wales, someone accused of a crime may be tried in a Magistrates' Court or a Crown Court depending on
how serious the crime is. Appeals from the Crown Court are heard in the Northern
Ireland Court of Appeal. Criminal
law in Scotland Scotland
has a separate court system. After a person is arrested by the police, an official called the PROCURATOR FISCAL is in charge of
deciding whether there is enough evidence against the accused for a trial. If there is
enough evidence and the crime is a very serious one, the accused is sent to the HIGH
COURT OF JUSTICIARY where there is a judge and jury(陪审团) (in Scotland there are 15 people on a jury). If there is enough evidence but the crime is a less serious
one, the case is heard in a SHERIFF COURT (The sheriff is a trained lawyer who acts as a
judge). Appeals from the Sheriff Court go to the High Court of Justiciary. 英国旅游景点
： 热 旅游观光 翻开欧洲地图，可以看到欧洲西岸外的大海中有两个大岛，一个叫大不列颠岛，另一个 叫爱尔兰岛。前者的全部，后者的北部以及其他小岛组成一个国家，全称大不列颠及北爱 尔兰联合王国，国际上通称为联合王国。这个国家包括英格兰、威尔士、苏格兰（三者在 大不列颠岛上）和北爱尔兰四个部分，面积24万多平方公里，相当于我国江苏，安徽两省 大小，人口5800多万，首教为伦敦。由于英格兰是全国的重心所在，人口占绝大多数，所 以在汉语中，又习惯把联合王国简称为英国。 论国土，英国不算太大。英文中有一句成语：from John
O'Groats to Land's End.意思是 “从英国的极北到极南”，似乎挺远。其实从John
o'Groats（苏格兰最北端的小村庄）到Land's
End（英格兰西南端的兰兹角），直线距离 还不到1000公里。加上海岸曲折，英国任何地点距海不超过120公里。但是在这不算大的 国土上，地形却丰富多彩。东南多为平原丘陵，西北部则分布着山地和高原。最有名的山 脉是奔宁山，它纵贯南北200多公里，号称“英国的脊梁”，但最高的山峰却在苏格兰，叫本 尼维斯，海拔1343米，差不多有泰山那么高。英国最多的湖泊分布在湖区，即湖畔派诗人 们生活过的地方，以及内斯湖（一作尼斯湖）那里传说有水怪出没。然而最大的湖泊，却 在爱尔兰，叫讷湖（一作内伊湖），当然它比起我国的太湖、洞庭湖来要小多了。说起英 国的河流，人们自然会想到泰晤士河，不过最长的河流却要数塞文河，它源于威尔士，全 长354公里。这条河有着喇叭口似的河口湾，每当大潮涌现时，激浪排空，海水向河口倒灌 ，蔚为壮观。 英国是个美丽的国家，文物古迹比比皆是，自然风景秀丽可餐，旅游资源丰富。许多城 市，如“万城之花”伦敦，“北方雅典”爱丁堡，大学城牛津、剑桥，古色古香的约克城，莎翁 故乡斯特拉特福都是享有世界声誉的旅游名城。英国还辟有湖区等几十座国家公园和风景 保护区。目前，被联合国列入世界文化和自然遗产的名胜古迹和天然景观就有14处，即伦 敦塔、威斯敏斯特宫（国会大厦）、布伦海姆宫（牛津附近），坎特伯雷主教堂、巴斯城 、索尔兹伯里郊区的巨石阵等遗迹，铁桥峡（伍尔沃汉普顿以西），方廷斯修道院及园林 （约克以北）、达勒姆的大教堂和古城堡、哈德良长城（纽卡斯尔一带），圭内斯的城堡 群（威尔士卡那封一带），苏格兰的圣基尔达群岛，北爱兰的“巨人之路”和太平洋上的英国 属地享德森珊瑚岛。它们富有特色、各擅其长，都是极受游客青睐的观光热点。 苏格兰
： 热 Political Parties in Scotland The largest political party operating in Scotland is the
Labour Party. In the course of the twentieth century, they gradually rose to prominence as
Scotland's main political force. The party was established to represent the interests of
workers and trade unionists. They currently operate as the senior partners in a coalition
Scottish Executive. The Scottish National Party (SNP) was formed in the 1930s
with the aim of achieving Scottish independence. They are broadly on the
left-of-centre and are in the European Social-Democratic mould. As the second-largest party in the
Scottish Parliament, they are the official opposition to Labour. The Liberal Democrats are currently junior partners in a
coalition Scottish Executive. In the 2005 Westminster election they became the second
strongest party (in terms of seats and votes) in Scotland. They have the third highest
number of councillors, and are the fourth strongest party in the Scottish parliament. The Conservative and Unionist Party has declined in
popularity in recent years. They are the only party ever to have achieved an outright
majority of Scottish votes at any General Election, in 1951. However at the 1997 General
Election they failed to get a single Scottish MP elected and at the following General
Election they returned only one, as they did in 2005. They are on the right-of-centre, but
many Scots used to vote for them simply because of their unionist credentials. The Scottish Green Party has won regional additional member
seats in the Scottish Parliament, as a result of the proportional representation
electoral system for the Scottish Parliament. In 1999 this gave the UK its first
green parliamentarian, Robin Harper. The Greens are also for Scottish independence The Scottish Socialist Party (SSP) was formed in 1998 and
operate as the foremost political party of the far-left in Scotland. They are
strongest in urban west central Scotland, the traditional heartland of the Labour Party. The
Socialist party is also advocating Scottish independence The Scottish Senior Citizens Unity Party (SSCUP) was formed
just in time to contest the 2003 elections to the Scottish Parliament. Unsurprisingly
they were formed to work for the rights of Scotland's senior citizens. More surprisingly,
thanks to the Scottish Parliament's proportional electoral system, they managed to
get one MSP elected, John Swinburne, their party founder and leader. 工党是苏格兰最大的政党。在20世纪，他们逐渐成为苏格兰政坛上最重要的政治力量。工 党的成立宗旨是代表工人阶级和行业工会的利益。他们目前是苏格兰行政院联盟政府的高 级合作方。 苏格兰民族党（SNP）成立于二十世纪三十年代，成立之初的宗旨是寻求苏格兰的独立。 他们大多党员属于中间偏左派，与欧洲的社民党如出一辙。作为苏格兰第二大党，民族党 是工党的反对党。 苏格兰自由民主党是苏格兰议会中的第四大党，目前在苏格兰行政院联盟政府中居于的低 级合作方的位置。在2005年的大选中，他们在席位和票数上甚至超过了民族党居苏格兰第 二位，议员人数居第三位。 苏格兰保守和统一党近年来影响渐微。他们仅在1951年的大选中曾经取得最辉煌的胜利。 在1997年的大选中，他们没有一人当选议员，之后两届都只有一位当选。他们是议会中的 中间偏右派，许多曾经支持他们的苏格兰人都是因为他们的工会背景。 苏格兰的绿党在实行比例代表选举制以来，在议会中的份量有所增加。1999年，他们的一 位成员Robin
Harper首次进入议会。绿党也支持苏格兰独立。 苏格兰社会主义党成立于1998年，是苏格兰最极左的党派。他们在中西部的城市中影响力 较大，也是传统上工党占优势的地区。苏格兰社会主义党也主张苏格兰独立。 苏格兰长者团结党（SSCUP）成立于2003年，正好赶上了03年的苏格兰议会选举。顾名思 义，他们代表了苏格兰老年人的利益。这个最新成立的党借比例代表选举的东风，也有一 位成员进入了议会，即该党的领袖及创始人John
Swinburne。 Legal System Scotland has its own legal system. The law is divided into
civil law and criminal law. The legal profession is made up of solicitors (lawyers) and
advocates. Solicitors deal with general legal issues including litigation (going to court)
conveyancing (buying and selling houses), executry and trust work (wills). Advocates (and
some solicitors) are responsible for representing individuals in the civil and criminal
courts. You pay for the services of solicitors and advocates but you may be entitled to help
with paying through the Legal Aid system. 苏格兰拥有自己的司法体系。当地法律分为民法和刑法。法律界分为事务律师和辩护律师 。事务律师负责处理一般性的法律事务，如出庭，房产买卖，遗产处理等事务。 而辩护律 师则要代表个人出庭为民事或刑事案件辩护。公民可以付钱请律师，但没有钱也可以借助 法律帮助系统享受法律服务。
Political Parties in Scotland The largest political party operating in Scotland is the
Labour Party. In the course of the twentieth century, they gradually rose to prominence as
Scotland's main political force. The party was established to represent the interests of
workers and trade unionists. They currently operate as the senior partners in a coalition
Scottish Executive. The Scottish National Party (SNP) was formed in the 1930s
with the aim of achieving Scottish independence. They are broadly on the
left-of-centre and are in the European Social-Democratic mould. As the second-largest party in the
Scottish Parliament, they are the official opposition to Labour. The Liberal Democrats are currently junior partners in a
coalition Scottish Executive. In the 2005 Westminster election they became the second
strongest party (in terms of seats and votes) in Scotland. They have the third highest
number of councillors, and are the fourth strongest party in the Scottish parliament. The Conservative and Unionist Party has declined in
popularity in recent years. They are the only party ever to have achieved an outright
majority of Scottish votes at any General Election, in 1951. However at the 1997 General
Election they failed to get a single Scottish MP elected and at the following General
Election they returned only one, as they did in 2005. They are on the right-of-centre, but
many Scots used to vote for them simply because of their unionist credentials. The Scottish Green Party has won regional additional member
seats in the Scottish Parliament, as a result of the proportional representation
electoral system for the Scottish Parliament. In 1999 this gave the UK its first
green parliamentarian, Robin Harper. The Greens are also for Scottish independence The Scottish Socialist Party (SSP) was formed in 1998 and
operate as the foremost political party of the far-left in Scotland. They are strongest
in urban west central Scotland, the traditional heartland of the Labour Party. The
Socialist party is also advocating Scottish independence The Scottish Senior Citizens Unity Party (SSCUP) was formed
just in time to contest the 2003 elections to the Scottish Parliament. Unsurprisingly
they were formed to work for the rights of Scotland's senior citizens. More surprisingly,
thanks to the Scottish Parliament's proportional electoral system, they managed to
get one MSP elected, John Swinburne, their party founder and leader. 工党是苏格兰最大的政党。在20世纪，他们逐渐成为苏格兰政坛上最重要的政治力量。工 党的成立宗旨是代表工人阶级和行业工会的利益。他们目前是苏格兰行政院联盟政府的高 级合作方。 苏格兰民族党（SNP）成立于二十世纪三十年代，成立之初的宗旨是寻求苏格兰的独立。 他们大多党员属于中间偏左派，与欧洲的社民党如出一辙。作为苏格兰第二大党，民族党 是工党的反对党。 苏格兰自由民主党是苏格兰议会中的第四大党，目前在苏格兰行政院联盟政府中居于的低 级合作方的位置。在2005年的大选中，他们在席位和票数上甚至超过了民族党居苏格兰第 二位，议员人数居第三位。 苏格兰保守和统一党近年来影响渐微。他们仅在1951年的大选中曾经取得最辉煌的胜利。 在1997年的大选中，他们没有一人当选议员，之后两届都只有一位当选。他们是议会中的 中间偏右派，许多曾经支持他们的苏格兰人都是因为他们的工会背景。 苏格兰的绿党在实行比例代表选举制以来，在议会中的份量有所增加。1999年，他们的一 位成员Robin
Harper首次进入议会。绿党也支持苏格兰独立。 苏格兰社会主义党成立于1998年，是苏格兰最极左的党派。他们在中西部的城市中影响力 较大，也是传统上工党占优势的地区。苏格兰社会主义党也主张苏格兰独立。 苏格兰长者团结党（SSCUP）成立于2003年，正好赶上了03年的苏格兰议会选举。顾名思 义，他们代表了苏格兰老年人的利益。这个最新成立的党借比例代表选举的东风，也有一 位成员进入了议会，即该党的领袖及创始人John
Swinburne。 英国的政党
Political parties in the UK Three parties dominate politics in the House of Commons.
They all operate throughout Great Britain (only the Conservative Party stands
candidates in Northern Ireland). Most of the British Members of the European
Parliament, the Scottish Parliament, and the National Assembly for Wales
represent one of these parties: Labour Party, centre-right to left-wing (traditionally
left-wing) (355 seats in the House of Commons) Co-operative Party (all
Co-operative Party MPs are also Labour MPs as part of a long-standing electoral
agreement) Conservative Party, centrist to centre-right (traditionally
centre-right) (198 seats) Liberal Democrats, centrist to centre-left. (63 seats) Most English parties tend to give themselves a British name,
even if they do not operate outside England. Most of the parties that operate
within England alone, tend to be either minor parties incapable of contesting
many constituencies, or parties purely interested in English issues or
regionalism, such as the English Democrats Party. However, the Conservative
Party have recently adopted a policy of English Votes on English Legislation
(EVoEL), a policy that is considered by many as fatally flawed. The
Conservative policy of EVoEL aims to prevent MP's with constituencies outside
of England from voting on legislation that only affects England. There is a
signifacant element within the Conservative Party that supports full devolution
for England with the establishment of an English Parliament and Executive along
the lines of that given to Scotland. 英国国会下议院主要由三个政党把持政治。他们的活动遍及英国各地
(只有保守党有来自北爱尔兰的候选人)。欧洲议会的英国议员、苏格兰议会和威尔士国民大会的大部分成员都代表这些政党中的一个政党： 工党， 倾右派议员到左派议员 （传统上的左派）(在下议院有355个议席) 合作党 （根据一个长期的选举协议，所有的合作党下院议员也同样是工党的下院议员） 保守党，中间派议员到倾右派议员（传统上的右派议员）(有198个议席) 自由民主党，中间派议员到倾左派议员(有63 个议席) 大多数英国的政党都喜欢给自己起一个英国名称，尽管他们都不在英格兰以外的领域内运作。那些仅仅只在英格兰区域内活动的政党，大多数或是无法争取到更多的选民，或是只对英国本身的事务或宗教事务感兴趣，例如英国民主党。但是，最近保守党通过了一个关于投票公决英国立法的政策(简称EVoEL)，许多人都认为这个政策有重大的缺陷。保守党的这项EvoEL政策旨在禁止拥有英格兰以外选区选民的下院议员参与只与英格兰有关系的立法的投票表决。在保守党内部有相当多的人都支持将管理权下放给英格兰，成立一个英格兰议会，按照苏格兰的模式进行政务管理。
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