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英语学习笔记

 英语语言学习笔记



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关于元音, A, O, E , I, U

元音一般都发两拍音, 但在汉语里是发一拍音的.

如北[bei], 汉语读两拍, 元音习惯上占一拍时间,  [ei] 在英文发音里要读成两拍,

I,  TIME, [taim] 单词应读成四拍, 不能是三拍, 元音占两拍.

元音既使不是两拍音, 也大多时候会是长音, 也为两拍.

所以元音多数时候会是两拍音.

长短音, 很难区分, 但是长音如果读成短音, 外国人不是很容易明白.

I SEE,  SEE [si:],  不经意就会发成短音,  听的人很难理解你想说什么.

三单词的最后一个辅音如果是 M, N, 要发出来.

afternoon,  总是觉得发音与外国人有区别, 仔细分析, 才知道, 第一个元音是长音[a:], 第二

个元音组合ER 要卷舌, 第三个元音组合是长音[u:], 最后一个辅音N要发出来,  基本上四点都

发正确, 就和老外的发音没区别了.

 

为什么中国人讲英语文,  一下了就能听出来, 很多应该发的音没有发出来, 觉得很干,  老外

的余音袅袅就来自这里.  

, 关于辅音.

辅音在单词的最后一个字母, 一般轻读,  很多时候不读,

I think I don't have enough cash.

think K 不发出音来为最好.

don't have , 两个单词中辅音相连, 前一个单词的最一个字母为辅音, 一般都不发音.

BUT  这个单词, 基本上在何种情冲下, T都不发音.

五辅音P,

surpport,  汉语P的发音爆破的不明显, 而英语很明显, 不是轻声, 要读出来才对.

, 舌尖音, this, the, those, that,

知道应该是舌尖音, 但习惯上是发不出的, 因为汉语中没有这个音, 需强化才能在无意识的时

候读准.

卷舌音.

美语中很多卷舌音, morning, department, party, more, are, thirsday, 不容易发对. 卷舌

音发的好, 离标准的美语会近很多.

, 多查字典.

不能想当然地想象某个单词应如何发音, 语音很多时候无规律, 大多约定成俗. 拿不准发音的

单词, 一定要查字典, 不然最简单的单词可能一辈子都是错的.

You are a student.

YOU ARE 都是长音, 而且ARE要卷舌.  如果没有查字典的习惯, 总有一天会发现, 原来连

最简单的You are a student 这样的句子, 自已都要错50%.  不怪得有文章中国人讲英语,

97%的发音不对.

至于重音和语调, 语气, 句子的节奏感, 只能多听多练多体会了.

 

 

英语学习讲座的笔记



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学好英语非常重要。因为英语的已经成了事实上的全球通用语言,每年最出科研成果的两

个国家是美国和英国,因为他们的母语就是英语,他们的科研人员可以方便直接的阅读全

球最新的科技论文,直接从中受益。

但是对于国人,却是不得不拿出很多很多的精力来面对的英语的学习的问题。奇怪的是,

这么多年来,平均智商93%的中国人却怎么也学不好平均智商只有83%的美国人使用的英

语。

为什么我们的英语总是学不好,而且越学越觉得自己非常的弱智?除了我在序言部分说的

,我们把学习英语的目的搞错了以外,最重要的就是方法不对。这种错误的方法导致了中

国人拼命学英语,却总也学不好的恶性循环。

看一下我们的英语教育,初中的时候学了很多弱智的句子,除了初中的考试,到哪里也用

不到,你会跑到美国指着一个钢笔问老外,“What"s this?,"Is this a pen? "老外会想,这么

大一个人了,连钢笔都不认识,简直一个白痴。根本不会理你。就算你是初中生,问这样

的问题也是很弱智的。这种情况一直延续到高中,大学。

再看一下我们的听力和词汇量为什么不好.初中的时候听的是最慢语速的磁带,高中的时候

听的是稍慢语速的磁带。大学四级考试听的是四级要求语速的磁带,六级考试听得是六级

要求语速的磁带。词汇量的掌握也是这样的分级。而且,你在学初中英语的时候肯定不会

去听四六级的磁带,你在学四级的时候也不会去听六级或者 TOEFL的磁带,因为你学习压

力太大,作业太多,完成老师留下的作业基本上都很艰难,根本不会有时间去学习更高一

级的东西。

而四级听力中最难的是TOEFL中最简单的,六级听力中最难的是TOEFL里的原题水平。所

以,你的英语进步是在一个台阶一个台阶的上,而且每上一个台阶你都要承受若干的打击

。在每一个阶段你都要遇到N多新的单词,听到很多听不懂的英语。经过十多年的英语学习

苦海后,总应该有很高的英语造诣了吧?可是一看进口大片,即看不懂字幕又听不懂人家

在说什么。口语自己也说不出什么来。而你花费了大量时间适应的四级语速,六级语速的

听力能力,除了在考试的时候会用到以外,在实际生活中根本用不到。就好象练武的人,

花费了大量的时间去学了一种功夫,以为是真正的屠龙特技。但是一旦遇到了真龙,却发

现你所学的根本无用武之地,你印象里的龙和真实的龙根本不是一回事,而且相差很远。

所以你根本杀不了龙。于是你就认为自己笨笨,那些英语学习好的人是天才。于是你对学

好英语就完全失望而且麻木了。

但是你看一下我们是怎么学习世界上最难学的语言--汉语的,我们小的时候学汉语虽然

大人教我们时语速慢,但是绝对没有跟我们分什么四六级,我们身边的环境就时正常语速

,对于美国人来说,就是TOEFL的语速。这个语速天天刺激我们的听力。我们学会一句话

并且熟练后,就可以直接达到正常语速,而不是先升级到四级语速,再升级到六级语速,

再升级到正常语速。所以我们学会N多句话以后,就能听懂正常语速的大人在说什么(除非

讨论的学术问题和一些你不懂的概念),而且你也能以正常的语速在说话。

  所以,你这种按照不科学的分级渐进学习英语的错误方法,导致你学了十多年的英语

,却听不懂欧美人在说什么,看欧美报刊总是会遇到一大堆不认识的单词,想说英语却说

不出口,说出来语速奇慢,错误一堆,连欧美的小学生都不如。影响你语速和流利程度的

,一是想表达的意思不知道相关的单词是什么,二是知道单词却不知道怎么读,三是读出

来却发错了音,导致别人听不懂,给你的自信心以严重的打击。

我们假设,我们从小只学最常用的单词,我们从小一直就在TOEFL听力语速的环境里,即

使那时候听不太懂,但是国家教委应该有能力把TOEFL语速的磁带中小孩子能懂的部分挑

选出来。或者把中小学课本的录音都换成TOEFL的语速。这样10年坚持下来,到大学四六

级考试的时候,会是什么样子?你会觉得朗读四六级听力磁带的那些人简直有病,一个个

单词的念,活人都给急死了。这样你根本不需要为四六级头疼,只需简单的复习一下,听

一个考试方法的讲座,避开考试中的陷阱就可以轻松搞定了。

  你可能会说这样四六级就没有存在的必要了。但你仔细想想,实际上四六级本身本来

就没有存在的价值和意义。只不过被硬性的和学位挂钩了而已。

所以,只要方法得当,考试不是问题。学英语千万不要为了考试而苦恼。中国的学生往往

是陷入到一个为了考试而学英语的心态中,这绝对是不可取的。

  面对英语学习中的苦恼,听说读写译,你最头疼的是哪个?你可能会说,除了阅读,

我都头疼。尤其是听说。这使我想起一个故事:有一个硕士生到外企面试,人力资源总监

问,你英语水平怎样?硕士回答说,“我考过了六级,这是我的证书。。。。。。” 人力资

源总监说,“不要给我看证书,你以为我不知道四六级证书是怎么考出来的?咱们用英语随

便聊聊。” 硕士生一听,顿时脸色有如zombie,“千万不要让我说英语哇,请给我出两道最

难的选择题,我用排除法瞎蒙法一定能作对!”

  实际上,这不仅仅是个别人的问题,也是目前应试教育下普遍存在的问题,这也正是

你对英语恐惧的所在,你对自己英语不自信的所在。实际上,每个人的听说读写译能力应

该是均衡发展的,并且相辅相成的。你可能会说你只有阅读很好,但你敢说你所谓的很好

,是真正的很好吗?恐怕要犹豫了吧,你知道自己仅仅是做选择题的能力很好。而做对了

选择题往往却并没有看懂文章!甚至连ABCD选项中的单词都认识不全。

  但是很多人仍然对做选择题乐此不彼,这真是一件本末倒置的事情!学英语是为了去

做选择题吗?作选择题可以有效的提高英语水平吗?想都不用想,答案当然是‘Absolutely

NOT!’。

  你想学好英语首先要认识到这个误区,并且尽量少作选择题。做英语习题实际上是英

语学习的Killer,因为你把大量的时间花费在做选择题上,得到的结果是自尊心严重受挫,

而且英语水平提高有限,甚至本来明白的做题以后也可能迷糊了。以至于一谈到英语,大

多数人都会惶惶的说,“Sorrymy English is very poor!

  为什么会这样呢?因为做选择题本身就是在浪费时间。

  当你在做题的时候,不会选择你全都会做的试题集来作,因为那样明摆着是浪费时间

。你总会选择比你实际水平稍微高一些的试题来作。这些题目中,你会作的题当然会作对

,这样还是在浪费时间。

  那些你不会做的题你可能做错,也可能会猜对。人性本惰,猜对的题大多数人很少会

去仔细研究,做错的题在知道了正确的答案后也会放置一边,因为后面还有大量的试题集

要去做。个别勤奋好学的同学仔细研究了做错的题目,搞清楚了为么不能选ABC,只能选D

,结果时间久了因为不常见到类似的题目又忘记了。而 ABC的正确用法又没有记住。有谁

会把自己选择题的错误分类整理呢?太累而且未必有用。我们背正确的答案只因为将来考

试中要用到,而不是将来生活的需要。实际上,将来的生活中也不需要使用这种变态的英

语。

  既然我们可以通过学好英语来解决掉考试,作对考试中的选择题,但是却不能通过准

备考试来解决英语,所以我们做不会的选择题还是在浪费时间。

  因此通过做选择题这种方式来学习英语,不但英语水平提高不快,而且考试成绩提高

也不快。这样学习最直接的效果就是越学对英语越恐惧,自信心丧失殆尽不说,一提到英

语就头疼。还不如去看一些英文原版的报刊书籍在娱乐中直接学习来的效果好。

  考试成绩不好不能怪你,因为这样的考试本身就是变态。在这样的环境下,你总有一

种压力,不知道自己的单词量到底多少才够用,因为考试总允许题目中有一定的超纲词。

于是背单词就成了中国学生在学习英语的过程中,心中永远的痛。

  那么怎样背单词才会变成一种享受呢?错!背单词永远不会有享受,单词不是用来背

的,只有在分析中理解记忆单词才有乐趣。

  背是一种低效率的机械的,弱智的而且容易遗忘的重复性劳动,而记忆是一种科学的

智慧的高效率的学习方法,这就是两者的差别,所以,从今天开始,纠正一个心态,不要

说背单词,而是说记忆单词。

  下面我们开始一种全新的英语学习方法,这是根据几十场英语学习报告总结出来的精

华。无论你是一点英语基础也没有的初学者,还是迷迷糊糊受了很多年失败英语教育的落

魄者,相信都会在这里找回你的自信和乐趣!

首先要注意的是在不应付考试的日子里,尽量不要去做选择题和模拟题。否则的话会让你

自己疲惫并厌倦英语的学习。至今为止你做的选择题已经比欧美人一辈子做的都多了,不

要再做考试的奴隶,不要再虐待自己了。

建议你按照本文提及的方法来按部就班的学习。有的同学在这里肯定还是会有疑问,那么

我的考试怎么办?我的四六级怎么办?我的TG怎么办?那我告诉你,只要按照这种学习

方法学下去,考试对你来说只是小菜一碟,考前适当的做一两套模拟题热热身,研究一下

考试方法就可以了,考试对你就好像打兔子搂草一样--当捎。

为什么我敢这样肯定?举例来说,当你学NCE1(新概念第一册)的时候,每节课后的选择

题能作对50%左右就很不错了。但是很多人能作对65%以上。为什么?因为你以前学的英

语在起作用。如果你学完了NCE3,那么一册的选择题一般能作对90%以上,但是三册的选

择题你可能还是在50%的正确率。当你学完 NCE4后,做NCE1 的课后选择题就很有可能

全对,做NCE3的选择题正确率就会在85%左右。

既然你现在会做对以前做错的题,那么现在不会做的题在将来英语水平提高以后也会做对

。所以,你只管往前学,而不要把时间浪费在做题上,不要自欺欺人的说什么需要做几道

题巩固一下,英语才会才学的扎实。撕破那个无耻的谎言吧!你需要把做题的时间拿出来

阅读英文报刊,网站,或是看英文肥皂剧,电影。当你GRE 课程都学完的时候,我相信你

可能GRE考不出高分,但我不相信你会头疼四级考试!

假设你已经从现开始打算开始你Bilingule的幸福生活,首先要端正好你的心态--英语是你

生活的必需,而不是为了考试。那么然后要建立一个小小的英语环境。

很多人抱怨说,如果出国呆一两年,有了环境,英语水平肯定会提高。我不否认。但是在

国内学英语就没有环境了吗?恰恰相反,有很多的环境。只是你受惯了填鸭式的教育,已

经不会思考,不会去寻找并创建这个环境罢了。

如果你是宽带上网,到http://www.ljf21.com下载“龙卷风网络收音机”免费软件,安装后就可

以收听VOABBC等几百个英语电台的英语节目了。

我把国内的几个网络收音机软件经过综合比较以后,觉得这个是最好用的。但是它的缺省

界面太老土,而且操作很不方便,建议在该软件的网站下载X- Winamp或者X-WinMSN皮肤

并安装,然后在原来的面板上单击鼠标右键,选择更换皮肤。使用了新的皮肤以后这个软

件操作起来非常顺手。软件装好以后,只要你开着计算机,就有事没事开着它,收听英语

广播。音质比短波收音机好多了。

听不懂?没关系,能听懂我还叫你听什么!听不懂也要听的目的是为了培养你对英语语流

的感觉,将来你说英语的时候,就会不自觉的模仿这种语音语调来说话,所以为了让你学

到纯正的英语,不建议你收听CRI,不建议你看CCTV-9

有的人会觉得CRICCTV-9比较容易听懂,所以老太太吃柿子--先拣软的捏。于是就先

CRICCTV-9的节目,想等自己提高了再听BBC

VOA。这种想法我认为是不对的。CRICCTV-9是给国际宣传我们国家的政策和社会发展

以及休闲娱乐用的,是典型的中国式英语的思维方式,句法和发音。想通过这两个节目学

到纯正地迎于等于是在浪费我们的时间。

我们在还没开始考四级的时候听不懂VOABBCTOEFL听力的内容,就表示永远也听不

懂吗?我们都不是弱智,只要学习方法得当,听懂的就会越来越多。过去我们把大量的时

间浪费在每一个过渡阶段的“精益求精”,以至于每一次英语学习的升级都要推翻以前的很多

积累,重新来过。让我们自己陷入一个英语学习的苦役之中。

所以我建议,直接听VOABBCTOEFL听力,听不懂没关系,慢慢来。把它当作你平常

生活的“背景音乐”来泛听。要天天听,不要中断,从能听出几个单词到能听出几个短语,这

就是进步。当你感觉你的水平能够听懂7580%以上的时候,再对照script进行精听的全面

学习,具体的方法会在后面的文章里专门的论述。这样的环境对于你英语的听力和口语至

关重要。

如果你上网不方便,那么去买VOABBCMP3光盘或者TOEFL历年听力真题的磁带,作

为你日常背景来播放。如果能听懂上述内容的话,那么再回来听 CCTV-9CRI自然不成问

题。但是如果你能听懂CCTV-9CRI,却不一定能听懂VOABBC,日后为了听懂VOA

BBC,又要下一番苦工。所以这是不推荐使用CRICCTV-9作为“背景泛听英语”的原因。

同时需要说的是,VOA不要去听什么慢速英语,那是给爱好英语的退休大妈听着玩的,要

听正常语速的VOA。这样才会一步到位。当然如果你的英语发音特别不准的华,你可以先

VOA的慢速英语来练习口语的正确发音。

有了这个环境,我们开始解决第一个问题,记忆单词--这是一切的基础。

英语是音形义的统一。高效的记忆单词和正确的发音是分不开的,所以国际音标的标准发

音是记忆单词的基础,也是日后听力口语的基础,如果在这个海量记忆单词的过程中,单

词都不会读或者读错,你记忆的单词不是成了聋哑版就是动物发音版,而且对你以后的听

力和口语都会造成障碍。日后到了听力阶段会听不出老外说的是什么单词,而你口语的发

音又让老外不知道你说的是究竟是不是英语。所以,学英语首先要学会正确的发音。

说到发音就有一个是学英音还是美音的问题。现在比较流行美音,所以大多数人都不加思

索的去学美音。但是你知道美音是没有标准的,南腔北调什么都有。那么美国的英语普通

话标准是什么呢?美国人实际上是崇尚Quees"s English--标准纯正英语的。

美国是以西海岸的播音员的发音为标准来进行参考的。正式的场合,例如政府的新闻发布

,商业谈判等,都是使用西海岸的这种发音的。而西海岸的发音又是以 Queens English

标准的。什么是Queens English?不要翻译成皇家英语,也不是伦敦英语。这也不是英国

的国家标准英语(R.P.--Recived Prononceation 标准读音),这是(集合了全球英语的优点)

的标准英语,国际英语普通话。

既然美国上流社会都推崇英音,我们又那么崇尚美音,那没有理由只学美音而不重视英音

。你的英音说得好,老美也会崇拜你。

如果你是考IELTS或者BEC,最好还是学英音。如果是考TOFELGRE等,那就学美音。

但无论那种,都要学的标准。要按照播音员的标准来要求自己。英语专业的学生大一的时

候,要进行一个月的发音纠正,所以一定要注意,英语的学习从一开始就不要走上歧途。

我在新东方听讲座的时候,记不清道是谁讲的了,说英语的口语不要在乎口音和方言的问

题,因为你不是去当播音员。这个观点我不赞同。因为我们学英语不是像菲佣一样为了上

街买菜,而是要为了获取更多的信息,向精英人物学习,同时也为了提高自己的竞争力。

所以,提升你的目标高度决不是自我欣赏,因为你本来就是一个优秀的人,你的将来的竞

争伙伴,可能不仅仅是你的同胞,而是世界各地的精英,你的竞争伙伴,很有可能是外国

人。但无论哪一种情况,你想胜出,只有在发音上略胜一筹。因为你学英语再努力,也不

如土生土长的英美人那样的生活环境来得轻松和地道。

所以,无论哪一种学习方法,要学好英语的第一步就是把国际音标的发音纠正好,很多人

认为这个很无聊,每次学英语的时候都不重视,结果搞的自己的英语发音带有浓重的本地

方言和口音的味道。而只有音标发音准了单词的发音才会正确,你将来说句子的时候才不

会为某一个单词的发音而犹豫,才不会影响你口语的流畅。

对于中国的学生,有很多音的发音是错误的,像[th],[v],[l],[n],[r],[i]等等,造成这种错误的原

因就是我们不正确的教育方法。因为英语的发音特性,比较汉语是不同的发音技巧和共鸣

方式,而我们上学时老师经常让我们自己小声的念课文,就是我们英语发音错误的杀手,

最直接的影响就是长元音的发音不饱满,不夸张,短元音的发音不是短促有力,而是千篇

一律的和尚念经,不仅把音发错了,而且说英语的时候也没有表情和感情。同时有些英语

的发音是汉语里没有的,在这种默读或小声阅读的过程中,大多数学生为了读的快,不自

觉的使用汉语的发音来发英语的音,现在的学校一个班级的学生数又多,老师也没有时间

来纠正每一个同学的这种轻微错误,时间长了也就成了习惯,你以为你是在学英语,实际

上却是在学Chinglish

所以在练习发音的时候要注意[th]的发音是咬舌音,不要习惯性的发成[s],[z][v]的发音要

注意这是一个咬下嘴唇的音,不要发成[w],[n] 的发音一定要有鼻音等等,纠正这些错误的

习惯需要你相关的教材和配套的磁带来纠正,新东方的41课堂的语音语调,美国英语班

,李阳的《疯狂英语》教材,郭锐峰的ASAP英语角才,邱政政的《TOEFL新听力》一书

都可以很好的解决这个问题。同时市面上很多听力和口语的资料也会纠正这些问题。这是

你学好英语的关键。这些问题不是你知道就可以的问题,而是要通过经常的练,让这些每

次都要注意的问题变成你口语的习惯,变成下意识才可以。

发音问题解决掉,下面来看怎么记忆单词,这是困扰大家的最大的难题,因为一旦词汇真

正的解决了,你的阅读就解决了,你的听力就解决了,你的口语也就解决了,然后如果你

中文写作能力好的话,英语的写作也就解决了。

但是什么叫做真正的解决才是问题的关键。有的人主张拼命突击,死记硬背,像杨鹏的《1

7天搞定GRE单词》,我认为这不是非常科学的方法,因为这样背下来的单词一是容易忘记

,二是不会正确的使用,使用起来难免会用错。

  举个简单的例子,你想对胡锦涛说,“我只持你!”,英语应该怎么说?“I back

you!”,"I support you!",“I second you!”,应该是哪一个?实际上如果你对单词不理解的

话,肯定会随便用一个,或者是死记硬背同义词的区别,但是如果长时间不用的话,你肯

定又拿不准。上面的这个问题怎样说,要看你的身份而定。如果你是江泽民,你才有资格

说“I back you!,因为‘back’有可以提供倚,靠的意思。如果你是胡锦涛相同级别的同僚,则

应该说‘I support you,因为‘support’的含义是sup->下面,port->拿给->支持,含有“如果你

需要,我可以提供给你我所能帮助你的”意思。如果你是平民百姓,则应该说,‘I second

you!’因为second有跟随的意思。

所以杨鹏这种背单词的方法不仅仅是在折磨你,而且有些BT,不是正常人能承受的。所以

选择英语的学习方法是要经过辨正的思考,而不是去盲从。杨鹏的背单词理论并非一无是

处,他提到的记忆曲线确是非常有用的,我们可以在后面提及的记忆方法中使用。

  新东方的江博老师认为,无论这个单词以前有没有学过,分类进行记忆是比较好的。

首先是可以从字母的形状来背,例如:

derrick->井架,deck->甲板,rri->井架的形状

rear->抚养(r+ear,可以理解成拉扯耳朵)

sap->树上流动的液体(s象流动的形状)

rap->轻音乐(r象歌唱的声音)

zap->突然消逝(z象转瞬即逝的闪电)

lap->大腿(l象修长的大腿)

  另一种激情联想法,曾经让我热血沸腾,上课的时候狂记笔记,笔记本上记了一堆,

但是脑子里全没记住。而且激情全是老师的,我一点也找不到感觉,老师给你联想到哪里

,你就跟到哪里。有时候你想到了汉语但是老师没有给出英语也让人干着急。

  因为你在学习英语的过程中,开始的词汇量非常的小,只有汉语的联想能力,根本无

从联想英语。只有机械的记忆,需要什么就翻笔记,老师没有联想到的,你就学不到。根

本学不到英语的精髓,仅仅是鹦鹉学舌而已。

  第三种右脑记忆法,又叫做什么不择手段记单词的方法,就是从单词的中文谐音来背

2万单词中约有3%是可以从中文谐音来背诵的。我觉得这种方法比较适合对单词量要求

不高的马来西亚菜市场阿妈,秀水街练摊的酷哥酷姐级的人物学些英语来玩,例如:

pest->害虫(拍死它)

duster->鸡毛惮(打扫它)

gangster->土匪(干死他)

bauble->不值钱(不不了)

torrid->炎热的(太热的)

ponderous->沉重的(胖的要死)

pyjamas->睡衣(披着没事->没事披着)

edifice->高楼大厦(挨地非死)

jamboree->聚会(江博来)

jambalay->什锦菜(江博累)

abscene->淫秽的(我不see

abyss->万丈深渊(我必死)

peevish->易怒的(劈你为尸)

amphibians->两栖动物(俺肺变)

taboo->戒律(他不)

tattoo->纹身(他涂)

tycoon->大款(太酷)

  我不推荐这种记忆方法,因为缺乏科学性。不过单词确实是可以从声音记忆的,例如

dart->飞镖(来自飞镖入靶的声音),另外还有的老师推荐长的单词可以采取分段背诵发

,适用于7个字母以上的单词,例如:electro-encepha-lograph->脑电图仪,archaeo-logy

->考古学。这种方法我也不推荐,建议使用词根词缀的记忆方法。

  如果你是准备 IELTSTOEFLGMATGRE考试的话,你所需要的单词量之巨大,

根本不可能给800020000个单词全部编个故事或者中文的助记法。因为仅仅是为了想出

一个助记的东西,就可能会浪费掉大量的时间,为了记一个单词,你实际上记住了两个东

西,更累。

  而且即使记住了,也可能发音不准,拼写不会,更不用说恰当的使用了。即使你能靠

这种方法记住海量的单词,但是在阅读或者使用的时候,总是想到一些变态的场景,经过

这样一种间接的转换,你对单词的反映就产生了时延,就会影响你的流畅度和交流的态度

与表情。

  如果你有脑子,就会知道这种旁门左道肯定不是好的学习方法。你想印度人不懂汉语

吧,甚至英语的发音都不准,但是欧美人却认为印度人的英语学的好。欧美人的词汇量大

吧,也不是这么背的。这只是中国人被考试逼得走头无路想出的投机方法而已。这样的学

习英语将会引领你走入英语学习的歧途。

  第四种,词根词缀记忆法,这是最有效率和效果的记忆方法。使用这种方法可以达到

举一反三,四两拨千金的作用。可以在较短的时间内,记住大量的词汇。为什么会这样呢

?这就需要从英语发展的历史来分析。

  在追溯英语的历史发展时,我们通常将它分为三个时期:

1。古英语(Old English),从公元450年至1150年。

2。中古英语(Middle English),从公元1150年至1500年。

3。现代英语(Modern English),从1500年至今。

  这样的分期当然不是绝对的,但它有助于我们对词汇的理解和记忆。古英语时期英语

从罗马文化和东欧文化吸取了大量的借词和派生词,并根据需要产生了一些构成词。罗马

文化基本上就是希腊文化的延伸,主要以拉丁语为主。对英语的影响极为深刻。所以词根

词缀的构成以拉丁语居多。而东欧文化又是印欧语系的不同分支。也有拉丁语的血缘。

  中古英语时期则是法国人统治英国的时期,英语又从法语借词和派生与构成词汇。而

现代英语时期则是因为英语在全世界的流行,从各种语言中借词与构成。并且随着科技和

经济的发展,不断的创造新的词汇。新词汇的创造禀承着一定的规律,到目前,英语的词

汇已经超过200万个,而且每天都在不断的增长。

  所以,死记硬背单词与旁门左道显然是行不通的,词根词缀大词记忆法则是科学的学

习英语词汇的方法,可以达到举一反三的的地步。并且拼写上很少会发生错误。所以,你

只要掌握3000左右的单音节词和1000个左右词根词缀,就可以解决你一生的词汇问题。例

如:

pose->

expose->暴露(ex->向外)

dispose->处理(dis->向四面八方)

propose->建议(pro->提前)

impose->强加(im->to

depose->废黜(de->否和非)

interpose->干涉(inter->中间)

justpose->并排(just->正)

  但是目前市面上有关的图书良莠不齐,各种词汇班的老师水平也因此受到一定的限制

。也就是说,目前词根词缀还没有标准的教程,这就不可避免的会人为的产生一些牵强附

会的解释。因此,如果你想短时间内使你的词汇量由量变到质变,达到一个飞跃,就需要

辨正的去学习词根词缀,不要偏听一面之词。

  例如,

history这个词,在女权主义风头正劲的年代被提出质疑,为什么是historyhis+story而不

her+story,这是对女性的歧视!于是1963年版Webster词典收录了hisherstory一词,也作

历史的意思,但是女权主义者仍旧不满足,又质问,为什么是

hisherstory而不是herhistory?于是1968Webster字典又收录了herhistory词条,但是最终

历史还是使用 history这个单词,为什么呢?一种解释his表示的是耶稣,英语是公元500

左右才出现的,整个一本圣经讲述的就是his story。旧约的内容就是一句话:等待耶稣,新

约的内容也是一句话,耶稣来了。所以如果你能证明耶稣是女性,那么历史这个单词才有

可能是 herstory。而且耶稣之前是没有histroy这种说法的,只有legendepic。另外一种

解释为,history这个词也可以为拆分为hi (er)+story,hier是粘,连的意思,连着的故事也就

是历史。在这个例子中,无论哪一种解释,都不会产生太大的歧义,怎样理解都可以。

  但是有的单词就不能随便的拆分,像madam这个单词,被有的人解释为ma+dam->

咒的(dam)老妈(ma,就是完全不合理的,因为madam这个词是对妇女的一种尊敬的

称呼,为什么呢?因为这个词来自于高贵的中世纪法语ma dame,是对女爵士的尊称,等

同于my lady(贵妇人),所以,如果你词根拆错或理解错了,在称呼一个女士madam的时候

,脑子里却在想着诅咒的老妈,我真不知道你会是什么表情。并且,随着社会的发展,ma

dam这个词后来也有了演变出来的社会属性和意义。在阶级概念不是那么尖锐的今天,什

么样的女士是好人坏人在其面前都要表现出很尊敬的样子呢?当然是警察啦,于是madam

现在一般特指女警官,如果你经常看港产警匪片,应该经常会听到这样的称呼。

  所以,对于一个词的解释,拆对词根很重要,否则将会导致你对单词错误的理解和解

释。目前市面上的图书,刘仁的《十天突破雅思真题词汇》是方法学讲的最好的,刘毅的

《英文字根字典》是拆分最好的,蒋争的《英语词汇的奥秘》是分类最好的。老俞的《GR

E词汇精选》,也就是大家说的《红宝书》,里面有的单词使用的住记法不太科学,是一种

为了应付考试而记单词的方法,希望大家能辨正的看问题。

  最近我也正在准备这样的一份材料,就是找出正确的词根词缀记忆法,并把各种词汇

归类简化,找出构词的变化规律和构伺的法则,让我们真正的简单学英语,通过3000个单

音节词和1000个左右的词根词缀解决掉大家一生的词汇问题。这本书已经在编写,按照计

划今年的年底就可以写完。

  想要真正的掌握单词,除了要学会正确的拆词,多查阅相关的书籍以外,还涉及到英

文字典的使用。

  学习英语的人手头必须要有一部英英词典。在字典行业里最变态的产品就是英汉电子

词典了,如果你依赖于电子词典这类产品,无论是哪个品牌,想学好英语,那是不可能的

。因为电子词典里面词条的解释很多都是错误的,有偏差的。

  同时,英汉词典也不建议大家使用,因为里面的解释也是不完全正确的。会误导你对

英语单词的理解。那么英汉双解字典当然也排除在外了,因为人性本惰,有双解的时候你

肯动会先看汉语解释,看懂了汉语解释自然就懒得看英文的解释。即使看了也不求甚解,

因为里面很有可能有你不认识的生词在里面。

  而对英语单词最正确的解释就是英英解释,所以如果你有上述不建议使用的东东,建

议你立刻丢掉,或者想害谁,把这些东东免费送给他。

  在刚开始使用英英词典的时候你会觉得比较痛苦,因为解释词条中总会遇到生词,这

不要紧,只要你能坚持一段时间,你会发现,使用英英词典爽的很。然后你自己就会不喜

欢查阅英汉词典了。

  那么哪一部英英词典好呢?考IELTSBEC的同学,和英语基础低的同学,建议使用朗

文词典第三版,不仅仅因为朗文词典是英国出品,还因为朗文词典图文并茂,并且解释单

词的用的词条非常的简单,基本上不会遇到太多的生词,也就不会影响到对你理解解释的

意义。而牛津词典解释单词用的词条的词汇量就大很多,适合英语基础比较好的同学使用

。如果是考TOEFLGMATGRE的同学,建议使用Merriam-Webster词典,因为美国的

考试机构ETS就是使用 Merriam-Webster来解释考试中所使用的单词的。但是Webster词典

分很多版本,对于上述的考生而言,使用collegiate版就足够了。

  但是很少有人喜欢查字典的,传统的印刷版字典查起来效率低下,而且很枯燥无味。

所以我建议大家使用软件版本的词典。因为不但检索高效,而且还可以发音,更有利于你

的学习。下面就比较一下市面上的软件字典版本。

  英汉软件版本有很多,既然不推荐使用印刷版的英汉词典,所以软件版的也不推荐。

但是在这里唯独推荐IBM智能词典2000这个软件,因为它的汉英能力比较出色,特别是对

于科技行业的术语。同时,它的即指即译功能比较好,可以设置成同步朗读,这样你把你

的词汇表输入文本文件中,或者是在网上下载过来,使用这个软件可以一边教你正确的读

音,一边给出中文意思,可以作为快速复习单词的工具。该软件的体积也比较小,安装后

只占不到80M的空间。唯一美中不足的是,它的发音是根据软件算法的机器发音,所以对

句子的朗读听起来不舒服。

  说到发音的优美动听,要属朗文词典2003第四版,可以在软件里设置英式发音和美式

发音。而且是真人发音,听起来特别舒服,但是它所支持的即指即译,好像是针对软件运

行中的单词,对于外部文本文件好像不支持即指即译。这样,你想学习优美的单词发音,

就需要一个个单词往查询框里输入,比较耗费时间,适合第一遍记忆单词,因为输入的过

程练习了拼写,词典显示出的解释和例句有助于你很好的对单词理解。这个版本好像是6XX

M的大小,而且每隔一段时间还要放入光盘进行校验。

  Webstercollegiate and thesaurus 2.5版本是最适合大学生使用的版本,54M左右,

如果需要带上语音的话,就是5XXM,它的发音比IBM的要好,毕竟容量在那里,音质自然

要豪华一些。

  再就有柯林斯和迈克米伦的词典,在国内考生中不是主流。如果你有钱,买来玩玩也

未尝不可。如果没有钱,就到网上搜索相应的关键字,到一些下载网站下载一个先试用着

看看。其它各种杂牌版本的词典软件就不建议你使用或试用了,因为我都一一试验过,你

就不需要再为此浪费时间了。

  对于有想在自己的WORD文档里面正确显示国际音标的,建议你从金山词霸的字库里

面把名字为Ksphonet.ttf的文件拷贝到WINDOWSFONTS子目录就可以了。对于输入,你

可以下载一个金山词霸的MINI版,大约30M左右,不需要安装,解压后直接就可以使用了,

你可以在查询栏目里面输入单词,键入回车后,会出现中文解释和音标,你之间把音标部

分复制粘贴就可以了。

  如果你是守财奴,吝啬鬼,或者是昨天刚刚买了一本电子词典或英汉词典,不舍的扔

掉或送人,建议你只在需要验证你对单词理解的正确性时才使用,并且尽量少用,如果是

要查询一个单词是什么意思时,则千万不要使用,因为人的第一印象是极为深刻的,第一

次记错了,以后很难忘掉或需要多次才能修正。

  使用英英词典还有一个好处,就是可以提高你的口语能力。因为使用英汉词典的时候

,你对一个事物的描述很单一,所以你也许听得懂老外说什么,却不能很好的和他交流,

因为你想表达的意思中如果你有一个单词不会说,就会让你很尴尬,很紧张,从而影响了

流利度,你就变成了英语结巴。而使用英英词典一个阶段以后,你对一个事物就会有不同

的描述方法,当一个单词不会说的时候,你会很自然的切换到另一种描述方式上去。

  同样的,使用英英词典还可以提高你的英语反应速度。由于英语的语速是汉语的310

倍,所以很多同学都觉得老外说话太快自己反应不过来。在阅读的时候阅读的速度提不上

来。实际上你仔细分析一下就知道,反应不过来是正常的,因为根据你以前的英语词汇记

忆方法,你看到或听到英语词汇以后,先是反应成助记的汉语意思,例如 pest->拍死它,

然后再反映成汉语拍死它->害虫,再理解害虫是什么概念,而英美人看到pest是直接理解p

est的概念的,再加上说话语序的问题,你当然反应不过来。所以,使用英英词典可以帮助

你跳过中文的中间环节,直接理解单词的含义。从而提高你的英语反应速度。

  学习是快乐的,我们应该使用正确的科学的方法来记忆单词。因为我们的时间有限,

除了要学英语以外,还要学习很多很多专业上的,生活上的,社交上的知识。

  明白了上述的道理,你可以给自己制定一个小小学习计划,让自己在短时间内掌握1

的单词量。

  首先要做的是单词的整理,你要把你需要记忆的单词分成两类,把英语的原生词单音

节词和直接外来词分成一类,把由词根词缀组成的词分成一类。每天从这两类单词表中共

提取500单词通过查阅朗文词典软件进行朗读和记忆,同时要记忆拼写和解释与例句。

  对于由词根词缀组成的词,要进行词根的拆分和解释。头三天的工作是很艰苦的,主

要集中在词根词缀的查找解释上。最好是每天早晨记忆最好的时候做这项工作。然后第二

天的晚上使用IBM智能词典2000辅助复习第一天的单词。以此类推,21天以后把一万单词

就全部过了一遍,然后休息两天,再每天早晨快速的过1000单词,记不住不要紧,做个记

号即可,当一个单词你做过7个记号的时候,一般也就记住了。第二天早上除了快速的过10

00单词意外,晚上还要快速的过第一天的 1000单词。

这样再过11天,每个单词至少过了4遍,可能你还不能运用自如,但是见到了绝对会有印象

。然后你再把你没有记住的单词挑出来按照上述的方法从头再来过。一般2个月掌握1万单

词量是可行的。

需要注意的是,早晨的是记单词,因为人的记的能力是早晨最好,而且一定要是早晨跑完

步的第一件事。晚上的是忆单词,因为人的忆的能力是晚上最好。而且最好是晚上最后一

件事。之所以建议跑步是因为增加了涉氧量以后会提高你的记忆力。也就是提高了你记忆

单词的效率。如果总是闷在屋子里,房间里的二氧化炭含量过高,反而会影响你的记忆效

率,所以早晨你即使不跑步,也最好到户外去记单词。

关于记忆的时间分段,一般建议以半个小时为一小节,前25分钟进行单词的详细记忆,需

要注意的是一定要音形义同时记忆,就是要边读边记,一定要在记单词的时候同时记住正

确的发音和拼写以及意义。然后是2分钟短暂的休息,注意这两分钟不要有强刺激,然后3

分钟快速浏览一遍刚才记忆的单词,接着进行下一个30分钟。

具体的一次是1个小时还是2个小时,要看你自己的个人习惯,精力集中情况和体力情况,

如果觉得心不在焉不在状态,就不要勉强,因为这样强迫记忆的效果肯定不会很好。

在记忆单词疲惫的时候,或者哪一天情绪不是很好的时候,可以听一下歌调节你的心情。

但是要注意,你主动听的歌一定要是英文歌,这也是你的英语环境之一。听英文歌有助于

提高你的听力,并且学唱英文歌还有助于你提高你的发音,特别是连读,弱读,缩读的技

巧。如果你特别喜欢港台歌曲怎么办?建议尽量被动的听听就可以了,就是当别人放的时

候跟着听听。

那么听什么英文歌呢?你可以到网上搜索一些英文经典歌曲下载来听,然后再到歌词网站

下载英文歌词。也有一些网站把一些英文歌曲和歌词一并打包给你下载的,需要你自己到

网上多搜索一下。网络上的资源包罗万象,关键在于你是否会高效的使用搜索工具,是否

会挑选最能达到你要求的搜索关键字。

我在附录里面会给出大家都非常熟悉的一些英文经典歌曲的英文名字,以方便你的搜索。

在这里我想介绍一些你可能不知道的,但是却是优秀到不食人间烟火的外文专辑。你可以

先在网上搜索相应的关键字下载MP3试听,但是我强烈建议,如果你有条件的话,最好是

买正版CD来听,虽然这些CD都价格不菲,但确实值得珍藏。因为我们平常听的MP3文件

是有损压缩的文件格式,所以如果你听这些录音非常考究的CD翻制成的MP3,只能听到原

CD所承载十分之一的信息。就好像别人喝了鱼汤,你只尝了尝刷锅水一样。虽然如此,相

信你也会感叹这些天籁之音的。希望这些优美的音乐会放松你紧张的学习神经。

Dee Carstensen -- Regarding the soul

竖琴才女 Dee Carstensen 蒂卡儿自五岁起学钢琴;八岁起学竖琴,从小就读于Eastman

音乐学校的儿童实验班。青少年时期开始受到詹姆士.泰勒、卡洛.金、贾尼丝.卓普琳

、艾尔顿.强与琼妮.米契尔等钢琴家与民谣摇滚歌手的影响,立志成为一位创作歌手。

后来在学业与事业间挣扎的一段时期里,她曾赴欧洲旅游一阵子,接着又自我放逐了一段

时间,最后才在落脚纽约后,致力开发自己的创作潜能,尝试将生活上的点点滴滴与心情

记事化作歌词与音符。

九○年代初期,蒂卡儿开始为一些知名艺人担任竖琴演奏与和声的工作,像93年她发表第一

张专辑《Beloved One》之前,就曾在亚特.葛芬柯(Art Garfunkel)的专辑《Up "til Now

》里露过脸。但严格说起来,还是95年发表的第二张专辑《心灵之约》(Regarding the

Soul)为她奠定了演艺事业的基础。蒂卡儿的嗓音清晰纯净、情感丰富,正如她演奏的竖

琴音色一样,充满了光辉润泽的质感。她创作的曲风虽然被归属于民谣类,但却掺进了许

多别的音乐元素而显得多样化。

Regarding the Soul》心灵之约

这张由史汀与险峻海峡的制作人Neil Dorfsman操盘的专辑,将蒂卡儿的歌声、琴艺与词曲

作了最完美的结合,由于得到了险峻海峡团长兼吉他手马克.诺夫勒(Mark Knopfler)的

背书,赞誉她是乐坛下一位琼妮.米契尔而大受好评。从此之后,蒂卡儿成为美加各地民

谣节与地方俱乐部的常客。

专辑《心灵之约》中的〈Angel〉是翻唱吉他巨人吉米.罕醉克斯之作,蒂卡儿在其中竟然

加入了非洲黑人部落的多声部合音效果,使得全曲呈现出前所未有的新鲜感。第一首〈Tim

e〉中她展现了较多的竖琴弹奏才艺,晶莹剔透的弦响配上她清丽高亢的歌声,非常悦耳动

听。第三首〈Underneath My Skin〉呈现相当低沉迷离的摇摆乐氛围,蒂卡儿压低了声调

唱歌竟有点莎黛?vSadew的味道。第七首〈To You, From Me〉低回而伤感,是整张专

辑中最感性的歌曲。

唱片曲目:

01.Time

02.Before You

03.Underneath My Skin

04.Love Thing

05.Angel

06.What A Little Love Can Do

07.To You From Me

08.Hemingway"s Shotgun

09.Stay

10.This Time Around

11.The Light

Jennifer Warnes -- Famous Blue Raincoat

珍尼弗·温拿斯(Jennifer Warnes),出生于美国华盛顿州西雅图的桔郡。当她还是一个孩

子的时候,Jennifer已经在公众场合为大家展示她动人的歌喉了。1967, Jennifer

Smothers Brothers主持的电视专栏里展示了她迷人的风采。JenniferMason Williams

作的第一张单曲推出后,她成为了洛杉矶Club的成员。她还在西海岩公司出品的电影《Hai

r》中担任了主角。1977年, Jennifer 的唱片《 Right Time of The Night》推出后,取得了

美国流行乐排行榜的Top 10。而1979年出版的《I Know A Heartache When I See One

也同样取得了成功。

1980年, Jennifer凭藉《It Goes Like It Goes 获得了奥斯卡最佳原创歌曲的殊荣。1983

年,她又推出了《Up Where We Belong,闯入了全美流行曲排行榜。而另一些电影歌曲

Nights Are Forever》《All The Right Moves》也受到了观众、 听众的青睐。1987年,

舞曲《I"ve Had The Time Of My Life》又为Jennifer赢得了一个No.1Jennifer Wames

藉独具的歌唱魅力,在欧美乐坛流行一时。

Nana Mouskouri -- Why Worry

娜娜·莫斯科利(Nana Mouskouri)19341013日出生于希腊雅典。Nana Mouskouri擅长

在音乐中溶入ClassicsJazz风格,她丰富的想象力使得她具有地域特色的音乐更具吸引力

1958年,Nana推出了单曲唱片《 Les Enfangs Du Piree》,它主要是针对国外乐众出版

的。由于这张唱片取得了一定的国际影响,Nana便向德国发展。在那里她为电影《Trauml

and Der Sehnsuche》演唱的《Weiss Rosen Aus Athen 销售出了万张的佳绩。作为希

腊重要的音乐大使,她凭借音乐才能向欧美发展,并且取得了成功。尤其是在法国,《L"E

nFant Au Tambour》、《Parapluies De Cherbourg》等歌曲极受乐迷青睐。

60年代来,Nana以专辑《Over And

Over》闯入了具有排外特质的英国排行榜。1976Nana的《Passport》成就了她在英国

流行乐排行榜的巅峰时期。Nana是一位永恒的歌者,世界上最美丽的声音,通过她的诠释

你才知道真正伟大的音乐的优雅:感性及朴实无华,近四十年的音乐生涯任何音乐形式,

流行、爵士、民谣、古典,并且你得至少精通六国语言:法语、希腊语、德语、英语、意

大利语。至今她已至少有1350首以上的畅销曲,超过300张以上的金、白金、钻石唱片,

共计2亿多张的销量。若不是对音乐的热爱,若不是有过人的音乐才华,哪会有今日享誉乐

坛的奇迹。

Crystal Gayle -- Best Always

Crystal Gayle ----有着飘逸及踝长发、迷人微笑以及与生俱来好声线的女子,被成为歌坛“

长发妹”。其音乐作品很多,“BEST ALWAYS"是最靓的乡村女声CD。十首好歌以深情的慢

歌为主,真是曲曲均具极强的杀伤力。《Grazy》全面展现了她高亢而又热烈的演唱风格,

惊为天人。《When I Dream》是一宗迷死人俘虏人的独特暗器。 听者的心亦不禁为之颤动

不已。值得一提的是《Oh lonesome Me》,此曲曲风尤其奔放,酷似西班牙舞曲,听者如

置身于西班牙年庆人群之中舞之蹈之,而不能自拔。《Always》以极慢的曲风瞬间揪住听

者的心,真让人欲罢不能,欲仙欲死。据悉,“长发妹”发长5英尺,约合1.52米。

唱片曲目:

01 Ready For The Times To Get Better

02 Crazy

03 For The Good Times

04 Silver Threads And Golden Needles

05 When I Dream

06 Talkin" In Your Sleep

07 Oh Lonesome Me

08 I Fall To Pieces

09 Beyond You

10 Don"t It Make My Brown Eyes Blue

11 Break My Mind

12 Always

Loreend Mckennitt -- the book of secrets

罗琳娜·麦肯妮特Loreena是一位讲故事的高手,将古诗歌与传统音乐相结合。《神秘的书

》将古老的故事与传说用她那如浮在空中的轻羽般轻灵缥缈的声音讲述,伴着迷人的音乐

让你的耳朵与心灵共享。

Loreena的每一首音乐都具有令人意想不到的新意,"Highwayman"是一首古老的叙事诗,

但只有Loreena天使般的声音能将其演绎得每一次听的时候都有一点意外发现,"Mummer"

s Dance "中美妙的歌辞和动听的声音让你重又发现故事中的艺术魅力。

罗琳娜·麦肯妮特出生于加拿大缅省草原地区的一个小城镇(Modern),是加拿大著名的爱

尔兰竖琴演奏家、键盘手,以及歌手。Loreena 青年时代的梦想是成为一名兽医,并且最

终进入Winnipeg 的一所大学就读相关课程。但是在80年,当 Loreena 第一次接触到爱尔

兰音乐时,她毅然放弃了学业, 并且在81年搬到了安省的Stratford,加入了那里的莎士比亚

艺术节的演出,从此开始了在乐坛20余年的音乐生涯。

Loreena McKennitt的音乐绝大部分为其自己创作,题材大多涉及爱尔兰文化及生活

,如果你是 Celtic音乐的爱好者 Loreena McKennitt 是个不错的开始。目前,

Loreena McKennitt 拥有自己的唱片公司,名为 Quinlan Road Quinlan Road 是其小时

候家门口的那条路)。

唱片曲目:

Prologue [序言]

The Mummers" Dance [艺者之舞]

Skellig

Marco Polo [马克·波罗]

The Highwayman (McKennitt/Noyes) [强盗]

La Serenissima

Night Ride Across the Caucasus [夜骑高加索]

Dante"s Prayer [但丁的祈祷]

Kate Price -- Deep Heart"s Core

One reviewer described Kate Price as "half fairy and half Gypsy." This is the album that

proves it to be wonderfully true. Easily lumped in with Celtic or folk genres by unknowing

music chains, Kate Price"s music is in fact a mixture of those traditions combined with

her own inspired compositions. Indeed, in the liner notes, Price remarks on how she

spent many of her childhood nights listening to Bulgarian music, and that flavor has

definitely stayed with her through the years.

Deep Heart"s Core has a feeling of unity that Price"s first album, The Time Between, did

not quite manage. Price"s storytelling slips well from selection to selection, making the

entire collection vibrate with emotion as well as the irresistible beat.

Kate Price again combines ballads and instrumental songs, some her own and some

with lyrics or music borrowed from other sources. The entire album is filled with her

trademark hammered dulcimer and hummell, the warmth of her contralto voice and an

energy which leads from dancing to dreaming and back again.

The first song on the album, "The Labyrinth," demonstrates immediately both how well

she can write as and how keen her sense of how music and words work together. The

song creates a vivid and almost palpable vision of the journey toward a wedding. A later

addition, "The Journey On," proves that the first is no fluke, providing an energetic and

poignant portrait of nomadic life.

"Rest Sweet Nymphs," "Si"il a R"in" and "So Ghostly Then the Girl Came In" are the

songs which have borrowed lyrics and newly arranged music. "Rest Sweet Nymphs" is a

sweet and playful lullaby accompanied by just the right amount of comfort and humor in

Price"s voice and music. "Si"il a R"in" is a commonly recorded traditional from Ireland,

and here Price gives it more beat than is often done, which stresses the narrator"s

anguish and strength. "So Ghostly Then the Girl Came In" borrows its lyrics from poet

Robert Hillyer, and the music is all Kate Price. In this song you can hear echoes of her

first album"s "Calling Me Home," the longing and delicate, ethereal music making a

powerful emotional impact.

Of the instrumental selections, which are fewer than on The Time Between, "Rio Del

Corazon" is a favorite, filled with layers of her voice as a wordless instrument and a story

which the listener can create for himself. Traditionals such as "Eliz Iza -- Jump at the

Sun" and "Sonatina Montenegro" sparkle with spirit.

There were no disappointments with this album for me. Every song leads easily into the

next without losing their unique feel, and once again, Price"s voice connects the album

and emotions together. The entire album is at a higher energy level than her last, and

the shift works well. There were many moments when first listening to the album for the

first time when I was moved to boogie a little around my room, or at the very least chair

dance, which for me illustrates just how much power a CD can have.

Tracks:

1. Labyrinth

2. Rio del Corazon

3. Sonatina Montenegro

4. Place of Spirit

5. Rest Sweet Nymphs

6. Journey On

7. Temple of the Wind

8. Siúil a Rún

9. Eliz Iza-Jump at the Sun

10. So Ghostly Then the Girl Came In

The best of Mary Black -- Looking Back

玛丽.布莱克(Mary Balck1955522日生于艾尔(Eire)。 玛丽是深具音乐传统的布

莱克家族的一员, 并与之一起灌唱片和演出. 她的父亲是一名小提琴演奏师,母亲是歌唱演

. 她的早期音乐生涯是在都柏林的民歌酒吧里度过的,但是在1983年,"玛丽布莱克"扩充

4名成员, 而且,她的专集还获得了爱尔兰独立音乐艺术奖,很显然,她们想有点大的作

. 此后不久,德.当那(De Dannan)加入布莱克乐队, 1986年其离开之前,一起录制

了两张专集, “献给爱尔兰的歌”("Song For Ireland")和 “赞美诗”( "Anthem"),尽管不

为人所知, 她还是在1984 年“布莱克家族最爱的歌”这张专集中担任一部分和声及部分制作

工作。德当那在时,布莱克依旧担任主唱,并于制作人德克兰.西诺特合作了“无人喝彩”

"Without The Fanfare", 绝大多数为现代歌曲, 后来这些歌曲成为流行金曲。1987年和

1988, 布莱克被爱尔兰摇滚音乐奖选为最佳女艺人。“无止境”("No Frontiers")与布莱

克家族合作的这张专集,除了是1989年的畅销唱片之外,还打进了美国的新成人现代榜(th

e New Adult Contemporary charts)的前20名。这张专集在日本也获得了巨大的成功, 并促

成了布莱克199010月的首次日本巡演。尽管在一些乐评人看来,布莱克在近期的代表作

品如“路之中间”("middle of the road")中,向循规蹈矩表示了公然的反抗,但仍然保留了

对爱尔兰传统的真挚情感。但是,她的确对较现代的作品有着出色的演绎. 她还与布莱克家

族共同合作了两张专集。除了在南茨.格里费斯( Nanci Griffith )的演唱会上友情演出外,

布莱克还与艾美娄.哈里斯(Emmylou Harris)和桃乐斯.基恩(Dolores Keane)在纳什维

尔的电视连续剧 “带它回家” "Bringing It All Back Home")合作演唱. 1991年的4, 布莱

克结束了她的美国巡演回来完成“树林中的宝贝”( "Babes In The Wood")专集的制作,

于同年7月发行. 这张专集取得了爱尔兰歌曲榜的冠军, 并在第一名的位置停留了5周的时间.

1991年,她的演唱会取得了巨大的成功并在英国和日本的巡演中赢得了更为广泛的听众群

。直到 “树林中的宝贝”这张专集,她先前所有由答拉Dara公司发行的唱片才在英国得到广

泛的销售。在以往的成功基础之上,“闪耀”( "Shine")这张专集到达她事业的颠峰,成为

她的畅销唱片.

唱片曲目:

01.Soul Sister

02.No Frontiers

03.Summer Sent You

04.Columbus

05.Adam At The Window

06.Bright Blue Rose

07.Looking Forward

08.Only a Woman"s Heart

09.Vanities

10.Loving Time, The

11.Carolina Rua

12.Ellis Island

Rebecca Pidgeon -- the raven

有关Rebecca Pidgeon这张“The Raven”专辑,发烧友大概都很熟悉了,我就不再多话。很

多朋友喜欢拿第十二首的“Spanish

Harlen”来斗机,一开始的贝斯拨奏那么有弹性.Rebecca的歌声又那么的温暖醇厚,陆续加

进来的钢琴饱满圆润,前面的小提琴木头味满溢,后方的打击乐器清脆透明,编织出一幅

令人动容的立体音场。这些录音是1994年以Chesky自家的128倍超取样A/D转换器录制的

,虽然真空管模拟器材由 George Kaye炮制过,但结果还是百分之百的数字录音。已经是

数字录音,还能变出什么花样吗?所谓的DSD Mastering不过是把LPCM讯号转成由同一台

唱机播放这张软件的CD层与SACD层,直接进行两种规格的比较,我必须说其间的差异并

非天壤之别,尤其是系统不够敏感的话,差异还会小一些。SACD胜在空气感更多了,乐器

的质感比较圆滑有光泽,人声更娇艳柔软,低频也更加有弹性,形体感则非常凝聚生动,C

hesky著名的三度空间感有很明确的诠释。Chesky的出现,让我们看到SACD的一个新方向

,到目前为止,我认为它是正面的。

香港CD圣经推荐

蕾贝卡,轻亮如同水晶般晶莹剔透的音色,就是一部无懈可击的人声乐器。

完美的演出及录音,与其说听她专辑就像在我们的面前演唱,倒是说听众被带到了她演唱

时的现场比较贴切,当我们闭上双眼聆听,轻易地忘记自己身在何方。

--Stereophile

本片对Cheksy而言,有特别的纪念性,同时也是最受欢迎也是最有名的一张专辑。在Ches

ky历年所出的精选集、音响测试片之中(列为音场定位、深度的测试项目),一定会有此片的

踪影,这张著名的专辑“大乌鸦”并作为chesky首张发行sacd

蕾贝卡?B碧瑾这张专辑在****圈俗称“大眼妹”,她出生于美国,五岁随双亲定居苏格兰,1

8岁进入皇家戏剧学院研习。由于自幼浸濡民谣国度,聆听音乐像呼吸一样自然,虽然不曾

以歌唱为职志,却也从未忘情天生禀赋兴趣,早期随意灌录的二张唱片,意外的大获肯定

,竟为她促成与乡村鬼才Lyle Lovett和爱尔兰民谣大师Van Morrison同台良机,就此建立

了跨行唱歌事业的信心,本辑即是她专致投入的全新出击。

大乌鸦 (The Raven)这张由蕾贝卡.碧瑾与国际名导夫婿大卫?B马密(David Mamet)共同

谱写专辑,是她加盟Chesky的首张,也是“一鸣惊人”的作品。因为她一直希望能够摆脱现

代录音技术的过份修饰,所以开启了她和 Chesky合作的契基,也创下了一个****乐史上的

辉煌典范--最完美的人声录音示范,没有过多的录音室录制,专辑呈现了最自然的美声质感

专辑十三首作品,曲风融合美声派居尔特民谣、蓝调、爵士以及流行乐,有一种带着强烈

入世的叙事性格,并带有特别欧式高原民谣风格。蕾贝卡的嗓音向来环罩一晕清灵脱俗的

地空韵致,透过她淡雅超凡的美嗓来诠释,成就了这张愉悦、冷静、清澈、高贵的新民谣

经典,更是人声发烧录音的经典示范,身为发烧友不可以错过此片。

Track Listing

1. Kalerka

2. Witch

3. Raven

4. You Need Me There

5. Grandmother

6. You Got Me

7. Heart and Mind

8. Her Man Leaves Town

9. Seven Hours

10. Wendy"s Style Shop

11. Height of Land

12. Spanish Harlem

13. Remember Me

Paint the sky with stars -- the best of enya

Enya 用民歌旋律、合成效果背景与古典化的动机创造出了一种建立在民歌和克尔特音乐基

础上的新世纪音乐。低调的形象并不能阻止她的唱片销量的突进,今天,她已是世界上唱

片销量最高的音乐家之一。

Enya 原名 eithne ni bhraonain1961 3 17 日生于爱尔兰多尼戈尔郡的圭多尔的一

个音乐家庭之中,父亲 leo brennan 是爱尔兰著名乐队 slieve foy band 的主脑,母亲也是

位业余音乐家,而对 enya 的演艺事业影响最为重要的则是由她的兄弟姐妹们于 1976 年组

成的乐队 clannad 1979 年,Enya 加入乐队任键盘手之职,为乐队创作了大量红极一时

的电视剧配乐。

1982 年,Enya 因厌倦乐队的流行取向而离开 clannad,这之后不久,她开始与日后的长

期合作伙伴制作人/曲作者 nicky ryan 及其妻子、词作者 roma ryan 合作,于 1986 年推

BBC 电视台的电视剧原声音乐专辑《the celts》并与 WEA 唱片公司签约。

1988 Enya 出版的第 2 张专辑《watermark》取得了出人意料的好成绩,单曲《orinoco

flow》在英国成为排行榜冠军曲,此专辑的全球销量为 4000 万张,仅在英国就有超过 100

万张的销量。在取得巨大成功之后,Enya 开始淡出演艺圈,仅在 sinead o"conner 的专辑

i do not want what i haven"t got》中客串一次。

1991 年,Enya 推出了《shepherd moons》,该专辑在美国专辑销售榜上名列 17,且连

4 年榜上有名,此专辑的全球销量超过了 1000 万张。 1992 年底,WEA 唱片公司重新

发行了《the celts》。1995 12 月,enya 推出了她耗费 4 年时间录制的专辑《memory

of trees》,这张专辑的风格与她的旧作相比并无太大偏差,但多加了一些充满愉悦情绪的

音乐元素。该专辑在美国榜上名列第 9,在发行当年销量突破了 200 万张。到了 1997

Enya 推出了她的首张精选专辑《paint the sky with stars》。

唱片曲目:

1 Orinoco Flow

2 Caribbean Blue

3 Book of Days

4 Anywhere Is

5 Only If

6 The Celts

7 China Roses

8 Shepherded Moons

9 Ebudae

10 Storm in Africa

11 Watermark

12 Paint the Sky With Stars

13 Marble Halls

14 On My Way Home

15 The Memory of Trees

16 Boadicea

Gypsy passion -- new flamenco

由奥特玛·李伯特开创的新弗拉门哥风格,秉承了纯弗拉门哥的灵魂,融入了迷人的现代气

息。传统的弗拉门哥单独作为音乐来欣赏,显得相当干涩,强调节奏的扫弦乐段又显得过

于嘈杂;爵士弗拉门哥似乎过多掩盖了热烈奔放的西班牙风情;新弗拉门哥风格(Nouveau

Flamenco)通过强调旋律和加入电声,无疑为弗拉门哥注入新的生命与活力。Narada199

7年开始连续推出四辑精选合集,倾力介绍当今最为发烧的新弗拉门哥吉他手。这些来自世

界各地、处在浪尖峰顶的SOLO手或DUO组合尽显弗拉门哥的妩媚多姿。

试听曲选用了Lara & Reyes传奇组合演奏的《甜蜜的女郎》。请将您的立体声音响开至最

大,随着音乐的节奏纵情摇摆肢体吧。与一般的二重奏不同,在这首作品中两把吉他分别

负责一个声道。在过门乐段,两把吉他交相次第作为主奏,而在华采乐段,两把吉他全情

发挥,令人跃跃欲动。当乐曲戛然而止的时候,您一定仍然陶醉于那热烈的节奏和甜蜜的

旋律之中!

在这些乐曲的陪伴下,突击2个月基本上可以搞定IELTSTOEFL词汇,3个月搞定GRE

汇。但是要知道,人的遗忘和记忆是同时发生的,虽然一些比较难记的单词一般记忆7遍都

能记住,但是如果你长时间不用这些单词,肯定会遗忘的。因为我们记忆单词并不仅仅是

为了记住,而是要为我们的Bilingual生活服务的。所以你需要有一个环境来保持和加深印象

因为单词记忆的过程中,你基本上对大多数单词只是认识,并不会灵活的运用,所以你需

要学习老外是怎么用这些单词的。

这项非常艰巨的任务,就是不断的培养出对英语的兴趣,然后晋级到阅读的阶段。兴趣的

培养不妨从看欧美大片和肥皂剧开始。之所以说艰巨,是因为不允许你看中文字幕和英文

字幕。这实际上已经同步的在提高你的听力了。

如何提高你的听力?这是词汇量有了以后才能涉及的问题。如果你的词汇量不够,或者词

汇的发音不标准,听力肯定没有戏。现在社会上很多听力和口语提高的培训班,人为的分

了很多级别,给你听的听力材料里总是有你不认识的词汇。然后低级别的时候,外教使用

弱智词汇来给你训练听力,你以为你有提高了,但是最后你发现无论哪一个级别学习完了

,外教之间的谈话你还是听不懂。所以,我觉得听力的提高首先在于词汇,然后你才能轻

松的理解俚语俗语和一些词组的固定用法。

实际上,从听力开始,口语和阅读的提高是齐头并进的。还记得在解决词汇问题之前我建

议你同步收听BBCVOA吗?那个时候是训练你的听单词能力和语感。你听CRI或中国人说

英语,总是在句号的时候停顿换气的,所以比较好理解,但是BBCVOA,特别是VOA

播音员,两个句子之间经常是不进行停顿和换气的,而是在下一个句子的当中,在and,or

之类的连接词,转折词之间拖音,停顿换气。这种语言环境的适应,是给你下面的听力训

练打下基础。

最好的听力材料是什么,答案是历年的TOEFL真题听力材料,但是我建议你在听力的最后

阶段再来搞定这25盘磁带。为什么呢?因为我们知道,我们在学习汉语听力的时候,我们

对句子的理解是有背景的,是有环境的,而且句子之间是互相关联的,前后是有联系的,

同时还有视觉影像在辅助你理解,所以有时候你能猜到这句话是什么意思,以及下句话会

说什么,潜意识里就安排好了哪句话需要注意力提高的听,哪句话需要弱听。

而英语听力的提高一上来就听TOEFL磁带就会有这样的弊病,没有视觉背景,没有故事背

景,每段话之间没有联系,不知道哪里需要提高注意力,结果是需要高度的紧张。这已经

不是生活了,生活是劳逸结合的。记忆词汇很辛苦,听力的提高就应该很放松,因为我们

听中文的时候就很放松,如果你听老外说话的时候总是紧张兮兮的,老外也会感觉很难受

的。

所以我建议从看肥皂剧和欧美电影开始训练听力。相信你以前也考虑到这条途径但是不得

其法,你的词汇量很大但是可能不懂得用法,担心看电影会有不认识的词汇就打开英文字

幕,结果看电影变成了阅读,后来觉得看英文字幕总有不认识的词汇很不爽,就改成了中

文字幕。结果电影看了N部结果就学会了shit,fuck......这样几个单词.

实际上目前的DVD 影片字幕的中文翻译至少有20%的错误,多的可能达到40%还多,会很

严重的影响到你对电影的理解。例如我以前看过的一个电影:男女主人公谈了半年的恋爱

,一天晚上,男的打电话给女的说,“我们结婚吧”,女的听了以后说,"Are you kidding?",

的说,"No,I am serious!"女的说,“好吧那我们结婚吧”。而该影片字幕是怎么翻译的呢?男

的打电话给女的说,“我们结婚吧”,女的听了以后说,"你是基丁(kidding)先生吗?",男的说

",我是斯瑞而斯(serious)先生!"女的说,"好吧那我们结婚吧"。最恐怖的是这个翻译从

表面上居然也能自圆其说。

在看英文版的电影之前,先说一下版本的问题。请不要看VCD版,以及RMRMVBASF

等等版本。因为这些版本的字幕是去不掉的,而且往往是中文字幕。而我们要看的是可以

隐藏字幕的版本。这样的话目前只有两种版本是可以选择的,DVD版本和DVDRip标准压缩

格式的的DIVXXVID系列兼容的AVI版本。

DVD版本是指DVD光盘,因为DVD在播放的时候可以选择字幕,并且可以不显示字幕。但

是需要注意不要买到枪版,就是那种使用摄像机在电影院偷拍的那种版本,画质音质很差

,很影响看片的情绪。

为什么会有枪版?因为欧美的电影制作发行公司为了保证影院的票房,DVD碟片是要在电

影公映36个月以后才发行的。一些盗版碟片的厂家为了赚钱,等不及盗DVD的版本,就

在欧美影院里偷拍,然后制作成DVD格式的碟片出来销售。所以这样的DVD碟片音质画质

都很差,这就是枪版。

如果你是使用计算机的DVD光驱看DVD盘,强烈建议你安装一个DVD-Idle的软件,以减少

你光驱的磨损。但是DVD光盘有一个缺点,就是不利于某一个片断的反复观看。例如有一

句话你没听清楚,你想多听几遍,你会觉得DVD机或光驱都很吃力,有光盘寻道的时延,

很不爽。

所以我推荐使用 DIVXXVID之类的格式进行压缩的后缀名为AVIDVDRip文件.这类文件

的字幕是外挂的,可以通过播放软件选择语种,也可以屏蔽字幕,可以方便的实现某一片

断反复播放,而且如果在网上DOWN到的版本不理想,可以再重新DOWN。如果字幕的版

本不理想,可以到http://www.shooter.com.cn射手网搜索下载,是全免费的。

为什么会有 DVDRip版本?这个问题解释起来比较复杂。简单的说就是有一个组织致力于

高清晰版本影片的制作,组织的成员做作的工作完全是奉献,没有任何报酬,也不应该索

取报酬。每当有一个电影的DVDRip版本被制作出来,都要提交给组织来审核评价,看在各

方面是否真正的有价值。然后根据众多的版本中挑选出来的这个最优版本再制作字幕,字

幕也是按照一定的标准和格式来制作的。完成以后放在网上让各国的组织成员进行本地化

语言的翻译。翻译后的字幕再放到网上让成员审核和修正,一直达到最完善的地步。由于

所有的这些工作都是免费的奉献,而且组织管理非常的严格,而且影片的播放也需要一些

电脑方面的知识,所以 DVDRip版本的电影一直没有被盗版厂商利用。

DVD版本的电影一张盘的容量是4.3G左右。而DVDRip版本的电影一般都是以700M为单位

进行分割压缩的,也就是说,一般DVDRip版本的电影加上字幕一般是 700M的容量,或者

1.4G2.1G,非常方便你刻录成光盘保存。像Friends一集的容量比较少,但是一般3

5集加上字幕正好是接近 700MDISCOVERY一般则是350M左右一集,一般2集正好刻录

一张光盘。

关于通过看电影学英语的方法,新东方的俞敏洪,杜伟老师建议,根据你的实际能力,先

23遍没有字幕的,然后再看一遍有字幕的,如果还搞不定,下载该电影的剧本,把剧

本过一遍,先把剧本搞定(这已经是阅读问题了),然后再看一遍有英文字幕的,保证看

着字幕理解是没有问题的。然后再看没有字幕的,这样下来如果完全能听懂的话,听力是

没有问题了。下面边看边跟读,模仿各种人物的每一句话,就像你是个配音演员,要做到

惟妙惟肖。

这时使用播放软件观看DVDRip版本的电影就体现出优越性来了,你可以使用软件轻松的反

复观看模仿某一个片断。

观看DIVX版本的电影需要安装使用的软件有:k-lite软件包,到下载网站搜索一下最新的版本

就可以找到,k-lite软件包里面应该包括Video的解码软件, vosub字幕软件,AC3fliter音效

软件等等播放器推荐zoomplayer,最新的版本像是4.0。但是我推荐使用3.0这个版本,因

3.0 的字幕语言切换比较方便。你在看英文字幕的时候可能会遇到一个单词非常想知道中

文的含义,就需要进行一下字幕的语言切换。

如果你的机器还想看 rm格式或其他格式的电影或使用更多种类的媒体文件包括Flash,可

以安装realalt软件包。这个软件应该包含在k-lite软件包里,如果没有你可以自行单独下载

。这个软件包里面带的Media classical player非常的好用,如果想功能强大一些,方便一

些。可以使用bsplayer这个软件。这样你就可以脱离那些什么realone,超级解霸等又消耗系

统资源,BUG又多的软件了。bsplayer目前的版本是1.0,但是我觉得0.86版比较方便实用。

因为0.86版缺省的有屏幕的滚轮缩放,鼠标左键在影像屏幕上的一次点击可以实现暂停,

再点击恢复播放。鼠标左键的双击实现全屏,再双击恢复缺省屏幕大小。另外bsplayer0.8

6版本的界面缺省就是MAC OS X风格的,看起来非常的舒服,又很少的占用左面的空间。

以上推荐的软件是我比较过目前所有的媒体解码和播放软件挑选出来的精品,希望大家能

喜欢。

下面来说看什么电影的问题,首先要明确什么类型的电影会提高你的英语,绝对不是枪战

片,恐怖片,悲剧片。看枪战片1个半小时听不见几句话,还学什么英语。看恐怖片吓都吓

死了,还学什么英语。看悲剧只顾着哭去了,心情不爽还学什么英语。这些片子不是说不

让你看,而是不推荐你用来学英语。还有,比较古老的片子不推荐使用,像魂断兰桥,飘

,音乐之声,这些片子里面的语言现在已经不太常用了。

要学英语就要看近期的电影,因为里面有经常要用,必须要用的语言。但是要注意,像梅

.吉布森带澳洲口音,他的《勇敢的心》是非常值得一看的电影,但是不推荐用来学英语

。同样的,凯文.科斯纳的《与狼共舞》也不推荐,因为里面大量的使用印第安语,《未来

水世界》也在不推荐的名单里。尼可.基德曼的电影因为带有澳洲口音所以也不推荐用来做

模仿的样本。

所以跟电影学英语的时候要掌握八个原则:

1。择片的原则。正确的选择适合英语学习的电影。

2。简单的原则。不要以上来就选择内容高深莫测的电影。

3。背诵的原则。对于电影对白重的精彩片段最好背诵下来。

4。重复的原则。一部电影要反复的观看多遍,知道不用字幕也可以完全看懂听懂的地步。

5。精范结合的原则。拿出几个电影仔细的分析学习。同时也可以泛看一些你喜欢的电影。

6。模仿的原则。对于经典的电影,要模仿其中的各种角色的对白。

7。突击的原则。尽量在短时间内突破,不讨拖延太长的时间。

8。根据发音标准的演员选择电影。以便于你模仿出漂亮的语音。

这样选好片子以后,可以重复的看一部片子,也可以同时重复的看几部,这样不会看腻。

如果三部片子看透,模仿语音语调正确并能背诵,一般英语口语即可过关。

所以你应该知道了,学英语的片子应该是生活片,里面有大量的对白,应该选喜剧片,保

证你学习的愉快心情。

在众多的电影里面,哪些电影符合这些要求呢?下面是新东方讲座里面推荐的电影,你未

必要全看完,只需要挑选34部精看就可以了,因为有些电影你可能一时找不到DVD或者

DVDRip的版本。

一般来讲,非英语国家的人学习好地道的英语发音需要2年的时间,但是这个问题也可以随

着你的环境不同而改变:

1。去美国或英语国家。

2。娶美国MM

3。看电影,把自己融入电影里

所以,如果我们暂时没有条件去美国或英语言国家,或者娶美国MM的话,就只能能通过电

影来学纯正的英语了。下面推荐发音超级标准,语汇简单,句型经典,特别是省略句式非

常好的两部电影:

标准女音电影 Sabrina 情归巴黎

标准男音电影 Dove 真假总统(没找到图片,希望有此片海报的网友能提供一下,谢谢!

女演员中,发音比较好的著名女演员有

1.Mag Rain

2.Julia Roberts

3.Camern Diaz

关于发音比较好的女演员的电影,推荐:

When harry meet salay 当哈里遇见莎莉

Pretty woman 漂亮女人

My best friend wedding 我最好朋友的婚礼

Erin Brockovich 永不妥协

There"s Something About Mary 我为玛丽狂

Vanilla sky 香草的天空

Sleepless in Seattle 缘份的天空 西雅图不眠夜

Youve got mail 电子情书

男演员中,发音比较好的有:

1。汤姆.汉克斯

2。达斯汀.霍夫曼

关于发音比较好的男演员的电影,推荐:

Philadelphia 费城故事(1993)

The Graduate 毕业生

Rain Man 雨人

Kramer Vs Kramer 克莱默夫妇

The Shawshank Redemption 肖申克的救赎 刺激1995

Legends Of The Fall 燃情岁月

Jerry Maguire 甜心先生 征服情海

另外, Forrest Gump《阿甘正传》虽然发音不值得模仿,但是值得推荐观看学习,因为里

面太多的经典和哲理。还有Gladiator《角斗士》这部电影使用的词汇全在新概念3册以内,

也是一个比较有趣的推荐。是检验你新概念13册词汇掌握情况的一部电影。另外,Lion

King《狮子王》也是非常推荐的,因为动画片是给孩子看的,所以里面的词汇比较简单,

句子经典通俗易懂,而且还包含很深的人生哲理。

这样的情况下,可能68个月360个小时就能听说全解决。甚至可以打到老师的水平。在

看电影的同时,一定要注意的是文化和思维的差异,以及价值观和生活习惯的不同。

例如:《费城故事》的一个主题:人要Fight。我们现在有多少人能做到这点呢?我们的教

育已经让我们逆来顺受惯了。再例如《西雅图夜未眠》里的精彩对白:

People who have truely loved once are far more likely to love again. Sam,do you think

there"s someone out there that you could love as much as your wife?

从这句台词中就体现了中西价值观的不同,中国人认为曾经深爱过一个人,对他(她)的

爱越深,就越不会爱上其他人,也不会再有这样刻骨铭心的爱了。否则就不是真爱。而美

国人认为,只有真正爱过的人才会懂得如何再一次的去爱,这是对爱过的人负责的表现,

这是对生命的理解和负责的表现。

对电影的观看,精选的要重复的看,新东方的老师Forrest Gump看几百遍以上,实际上我

们学习不用这么夸张,如果有三部电影的台词别人说出上句,你能说出下句的话。你的口

语一定一级棒,而且非常地道。

当然并不是说上面没有推荐的电影就不值得观看,只要是你喜欢的英文电影,都可以观看

,只要你用心,总会从中学到很多东西的。

对于要精看的电影,一定要有电影的script,这样才能学习到更多的东西。你可以到http://ww

w.google.com使用电影的英文名字+空格+script进行搜索,就可以找到该剧本的下载。

需要注意的是,一开始你看英文字幕总有想要知道确切中文意思的愿望,就是有英文->

->意思,才能理解,我希望在这个过程中把你训练成英文->意思,直接的转换。这样才

有助于你形成美语的思维和思考问题的方式。

中国人的英语常常会让老外莫名奇妙,常常会问你,“Can you speak againwhat"s your

meanwhat"s your point?”

这正是不同文化思维方式上的差别。英文对问题的陈述是先描述结果再描述过程,而中文

则是先描述过程最后描述结果。也就是说,英文按照重要程度来描述问题,而中文按照时

间顺序描述问题。

例如,中国人写简历:19801983199019952002。而欧美人正好相反。再例如,

中文说,“今天早晨我们去河边散步的时候你的孩子救了一个落水儿童。”而英文则说,“Yo

ur son saved a kid who falled into the river when we walk alone in the morning.”

因此你不能按照中文的思维方式说英语,例如,中国人往往会这样说,“When she heards

this she was happy“,但实际上欧美人是这样说的,”She was so happy when she heard

this”。

所以,你在使用英文的时候,就要按照英语的思维来描述问题。先说point,再由内往外,

由近至远描述,而不是中文方式的由外往内由远至近的描述。因为中国人是鸟瞰的看问题

,而欧美人是井底之蛙的看问题。在描述的时候,中文是从轻到重,偏正结构,而英文是

从重到轻,正偏结构。

例如中文说,”你的意思是。。。“,而英文则说:“What you meanWhat your point...”。

再例如,英文的歌词,“Country Roadtake me home”,而中文的歌词则是,“你从雪山走

来。。。。。。”

所以,当你用英语描述问题的时候,一定要简洁直接,不要打暗语。例如,中国的女孩子

拒绝男孩子的邀请,往往会说,“现在忙,下次吧”。这一句“下次吧”的意思很有可能是说,

“下辈子吧”,但是欧美人如果听到你说“下次吧”,往往会理解成你现在真的没有时间,于是

第二次又来约你。再例如,在中国,老板问职员,十一放假有没有事啊?外国的职员一般

都会提前把自己的休假计划好的,于是会向老板说他要去哪里哪里玩。但如果是中国的职

员,就会问老板,“需要我加班吗?”

很多人的困扰是中文想说的意思无法表达成同步的英文,在你汉英转换的时候,可以考虑

把你的把汉语的水平降到英语的水平再翻译,这样就降低了你的翻译难度。比如中文说,“

他缺了一条腿”,英文的“缺”不太好精确的翻译,你可以降低后用英文说,“他只有一条腿”。

再例如,”我们不能近亲结婚“,可以降低变成,”我和我丈夫不能是接近的亲属“。

但是,也不要走入过度简洁而不顾文化背景的误区。例如,过去我们在国际上宣传我们的

社会主义建设时把“五讲四美三热爱”翻译成“Five talks,Four beauties,Three loves",结果

老外一看,纷纷到中国旅游,因为他们把这句话按照英语的思维方式理解成了”五次谈话,

可以找到4个美女,其中3个可以成为情人。“

英语实际上是一种细节化的表达语言,语言=信息,是非常好学的一种语言,I say what I

mean and I mean what I say。但是中文则是语言<信息,例如,”长河落日圆“,”枯藤老树昏

鸦“等等,这都是在英汉转换的时候需要注意的.也就是为什么要求你把你的汉语水平降低到

英语的水平,然后再进行汉英转换的问题。

中西思维的差异还表现在价值观上。中国价值体现在相同上,所以汉语是批评的教育,追

求共同性。而欧美的价值体现在不同上,所以英语是夸奖的教育,是一种求异文化,追求

独特性。所以中国人眼里的丑女到了欧美很容易就找到男友,但是中国帅哥才子到了欧美

却很不容易找到欧美的女友,因为欧美女孩子并不是看重男孩子是否帅,学习是否刻苦,

而是看重健壮的身体。所以,在欧美,体育项目有特长的男孩才是她们崇拜的偶像,才是

她们心中的英雄。而中国才子能考到奖学金去欧美留学的,体育上往往都很弱,更不用说

那些橄榄球,冰球之类的冲撞项目了。

正因为这种追求独特性的文化,所以英文的思维是out standing。当你用英文定义所有的概

念的时候也需要注意这一点。

例如,给出两个事物让你解释,你就要按照这样的思维方式来构架你描述的思路:

UFO

1.object

2.flyying

3.come from

4.where to go

5.who

ape

1.a kind of animal

2.just like human

3.live in mountain

只有这样在形成了the way of thinking的习惯以后,你才会慢慢的建立你对英文的自信。

然后在你阅读和写作的时候,就会轻松很多。对于阅读,不推荐读国内的报刊或缩写本的

英文读物,读这些东西的结果就是将来你拿过来欧美9岁儿童阅读的《哈里。波特》,很有

可能看不懂。因为那才是纯正英语的句式和思维方式。

首先,泛读先从简单的读物读起,例如英文小说:小妇人,小孤女,海蒂,小公主等等。

不要认为里面的生词少就不屑于阅读,这样通俗易懂的简单英语读物正是提高你英语阅读

速度的工具。

然后一步一步的加大阅读的难度,并通过阅读掌握新的单词。单词的掌握不必可以,如果

这个单词重要,则会在这个文章中反复的出现。这样的话你很容易就会理解并记住这个单

词。

如果你觉得自己的语法不好,可以看一下张道真或者薄冰的语法书,其实语法的难点就在

于非谓语动词和复合句,记住规则并背下例句基本上就可以解决。不要把过多的精力投入

到语法的研究中去,没有必要。要记住语法是从语言里面总结出来的,是语言的孙子,而

不是语言的祖父。

在这个基础上,再训练提高自己的阅读速度,养成快速阅读的习惯。怎样才会快速阅读?

首先要搞清楚一个原理,就是阅读的单位。我们经常会听到老外抱怨中国的报刊字体太小

,不好辨认。其实我们中国人并没有觉得小。为什么呢?因为我们辨认一个汉字,从大体

轮廓上就能知道是什么字,例如“赢”。但是老外来看这个字,就会仔细的辨认 “亡口月贝凡”

,才会反应出这个字是“赢”。同样的道理,我们看英文的网站会觉得他们的字体太小,实际

上我们是在辨认每个单词的每个字母,然后再反应出单词的中文意思,再产生理解。但老

外是看单词的外形就知道是什么意思,并没有仔细的查对每一个字母。这就是提高英文阅

读速度的诀窍。

写作就是考书面英语,英文的句子是树状结构的句子,中文则是竹竿结构的句子。在英文

写作的时候要注意单词的前后搭配,例如:bring people together。同时也要摆脱中文的思

维方式。也就是我们刚才提到的美语思维。

并且注意不同词汇与句法的使用才能体现出你写作的水平。例如,药性容你的女朋友很漂

亮,一般人会说,“Nothing can be compare with her beauty!”,但是这样的说法缺少修饰

,我们可以润色一下,“Nothing can be compare with her dreamy eyes,rosy cheaks,sexy

lips and supple knees!”,再晋一级,你可以说,“No one can avoid being influened by

......”

与阅读和写作同步进行的,就是听力和口语的学习。而口语往往是衡量一个人英语水平的

标准。The moment you speak,You are placed. 而我们以前往往学到的是聋哑英语,用一

句歌词来说就是,”洋装虽然穿在身,我心依然是中国心“。当你的思维方式解决好了以后,

就可以开始听力和口语了,这样会使你的进步更迅速。

对于初学英语的人来说,口语的训练一定要把基础打好。声音即形象英语讲究腹胸颅三腔

共鸣,首先要把50几个单音的正确发音,然后再选择相应的教材进行训练,例如,可以根

据走遍美国的磁带或者VOASpecial English进行语音语调的模仿。千万不要和印度人一

样,把today发音程to die,这是语音致命的问题。

很多人在口语学习的时候不敢张嘴说,对自己的发音没有自信。但仔细想想,为什么不敢

说呢?说吧,面子不重要,失败是成功之母,不要担心口语的时候犯错误,我们会在错误

中成长,只有你现在错过,你将来才有可能不会错。如果你觉得自己的发音难听也不要紧

,说吧,受苦的又不是你。如果现在练习的时候不说,那么实际应用的时候,受苦的却肯

定就是你了。

要想练好你的口语,一般可能会经过下面的3个步骤:

1Open your mouth and challeng your personality。张开嘴挑战你的个性。不要不好意

思开口。简单的“hello,goodbye”找30个老外练,不需要再说别的,你就会就找到感觉。

2。提高质量, practice skills,通过练习更正错误,形成习惯,组织语言的顺序。使之符

合纯正英语的语序。例如,如果一个中国女孩对男孩说,“你心里根本没有我!”中式英语会

说,“You never think of me!”而欧美的女孩则会说“I am not on your mind!”

3Develop your through nature。和你的语言交个朋友,永远说自己的话。口语并不是要

求你炫耀你的单词量,而是要用好小词。例如:“take bustake ittake medicine”等等。

VOA的慢速英语可以用1500个单词来描述世界上所有的事情。我们为什么不呢?

口语是一个inputoutput的过程,要求你大声的朗读,坚持背诵(reciting)。语言看懂了

不是你的,背下来才是你的,背下来再说出来才真正是你的。每天坚持背3个句型,一共背

450个句型就足够你口语交流使用了。

口语是应用的过程,不要满足于Sounds ring a bell,能听得懂不带表能说得好,一定要天

天练习。练习什么?建议的听力和口语材料:

TOEFL历年听力真题的录音,模仿其语音语调。

模仿发音标准的电影对白(就是上面推荐的电影)

外研社的初中高级英语听力教材

作为你的发音,一定要标准清晰,练的纯熟。因为你将来走入国际社会后,你的竞争将来

自于世界各地。

口语练习的时候,不要在意纠正口语中的语法错误,流畅就好,流畅了以后你自然会慢慢

的纠正好里面的语法错误。对于要表达的意思不要绕圈子,直接表达,然后再展开解释。

语言要说得自然流利,Keep it sampleKeep it short。不要再说,“My English is very

poor”,每天都要对自己说,“My english is geting better and better everyday”。这样经过

8个月的练习你甚至就可以当老师了。

口语中最重要的是语音的双元音发音要fine,元音的发音要饱满。同时要注意声音的滑落,

例如,把sold out变成一个单词去读sol-dout

在口语的发音方面,李阳疯狂英语的方法很值得推荐。针对中国人英语发音的缺点,李阳

总结了五个发音秘诀:

1。双元音和长元音发音要饱满

I made a terrible mistake

2。短元音收小腹,短促有力

let‘s get together again soon

great minds think alike

I am so prode of you

Go Home

Sweat Dream

3。连读

i am working on it

I will think it over

4。省略

I don"t know what to do

5。咬舌头

3333

It"s the same thing

精确地发音有助于你正确的表达你的思想不被误解,例如下面的单词如果你发音不准的话

,很有可能造成误会:

bad [i:] beach

bed [i] bitch 婊子

sheet

shit

fool

full

很多人在说英语的时候总觉的自己嘴张不开,发音不到位。但是因为已经是多年的习惯了

,所以自己纠正不过来。有没有好的办法来解决这个问题呢?

当然有!中文的发音一般是在嘴唇上,而英语的发音却是在舌头上,所以中文叫“绕口令”,

英文叫做“Toungh twister”。知道了这点差别以后,再结合下面ASAP英语学习法的郭锐峰

老师提供的方法,会立刻改变你的发音。

这是英语播音员常使用的方法。首先要保证的是,你的发音是要正确的。然后先做热身,

尽最大可能噘嘴,发“屋”的音,然后尽最大可能咧嘴,发“一”的音,然后再噘嘴发“屋”的音

,再转成咧嘴的“一”音。然后快速的转换,知道两腮酸痛为止。然后双手轻拍双颊,做一下

简单的放松。接着找一份阅读材料来阅读。但是要注意,读的时候要咬住牙齿不要分开,

然后尽量正确的发音,把这篇短文度2遍。你会觉得这么做很难受,本来发音就不准,现在

更没谱了。没关系,当你觉得两腮酸痛的时候,张开嘴,以正常的方式再朗读刚才的短文

,你就会发现,你的发音已经有质的突破了,元音自然就饱满了,嘴自然就张开了,自己

会明显的感觉到发音到位了。

当你的口语达到这种欧美人说话习惯的时候,听力自然就会跟上去了。

对于口语和听力,俞敏洪老师建议:听20部英文电影,再来听TOEFL就会觉得很简单,语

速很慢,因为英美电影中的口语很快,如果你能正常模仿其中的对白,考TOEFL就很简单

。因为TOEFL就是考日常口语。

讲英文必须注意重音。我们课堂英语教学的语速往往过慢,失真,轻重音混乱。所以学生

经常在口语的时候重音错乱。那么什么时候应该重音呢?

1。动词要重音

I"m here today to GET my English UPGRADED

GO and ASK her

加重音符号

GET out

2.关键名词重读

My name is ...JASON 暂缓加重音

I was born in 1975 数字敏感要重读

I wanna see YOU / not HIM 很多时候背的词组和说的结构不一样,要读懂句子的含义再确

定哪里应该重读。

3。形容词和副词一般重读

技巧的处理,重音加延长,连读,爆破,半失爆破,全失爆破(吞音)

I don"t know t有口型不发音

I don"t like it (li-kei-t)

I don"t like to speak (k)orean

go and ask her goan-da-sk(h)er

get him a book(ge-t(h)i-ma-book)

You"ll flip out when I tell you want happened last night

4。通过节奏来控制重读

1234

Marry at the cottage door

5,6,7,8

Eating cherries off a plate

在学习口语的时候,如果想学英音,你就模仿BBC,如果想学美音,就模仿VOA。英音和

美音的差别在于,美音基本上是完全按照单词的拼写来发音的。例如:

英音中r发音不卷舌,美音r在词中词末的时候发音卷舌。

英音中goddollar[c]的音,而美音发[a]的音。

英音中neithereither中的e不发音,而美音中发音。

但是无论英音美音,英语的发音都是一种收气的感觉,例如:

[au] aboutsit downaround

[ai] bikebye

[eu] road

[ci] boy

而且S,T,K,P这些辅音字母都是送气音,而我们的汉语则是送气的感觉,例如:看电影去,

烛光晚餐,我爱你。

在口语中还应该注意的一个问题是弱读,连读,缩读。例如:

What are you going to do?(wachya gonna do?)

When you get out of here?(when ya get oudda here?)

What do you wang to do(wodya wanna do?)

在口语中遇到弱读,连读,缩读的时候就特别需要注意:

1。单音的发音

2。音与音的连接

3。重读

4。语音语调

在口语中欧美人说 go (to) get常去掉to ,因为这样说的时候比较顺利,但是语法却是错误

的。没有关系,这不会影响你的口语交流,流畅即可。不要过分注意语法的问题。口语不

是写作考试。我们中文口语也常把“别这样”说成“别介”,当你的口语流利以后,你口语中的

语法错误自然就会慢慢的减少。

我们汉语的口语象五四手枪的节奏,而英语像冲锋枪的节奏。英式的英语类似于拄拐式英

语,像心电图,和谐共振WNWNWNWNWVNVNV,美式的英语类似于牛仔式英语,像病危

的心电图~~~~~~~~~~~~~,所以英语的断句与换气很重要,要根据意群断句,意群不要破

坏。同时调整好自己的音质。也就是英语中俗称的“调音”,就是利用mning鼻音解决低

音浑厚的问题,利用单双元音解决穿透力问题。

例如:intenational

take care

maxmium

come on (要注意渲染力)

英语口语的训练切忌声音太小,因为你使用英语的场合很有可能是在机场,巴士上,如果

在国外的这种场合,英语口语的声音太小也许会影响你的生存。为了改善这一点,可以通

过大声的朗读类似下面的练习来纠正。

1234here we go

c"mon cheer up!

Jack &Jill went up the hill

to tetch a pail of water

Jack fell down and broke his crown,

and Jill came tumbing after

如果你对这样的训练方法感兴趣,不妨找一些RAP的歌曲来练习,效果会更好。一口流利

的口语会给你带来很多竞争的机会。现在的外企招聘或者国外打学的录取往往是先电话inte

rview,其目的就是测试你的英语口语。

英语口语水平的提高,表现在三个阶段:

diaglog 对话

discuession 讨论

debess 辩论

这三个阶段是循序渐进的,但是要注意的是,在欧美的认识中,观点没有对错之分,只要

你能充分的证明自己的观点,能让人convincing就是成功。很多现在的真理将来未必是。所

以你不要禁锢你的思维,以为辩论就一定要辨个对错。对话,讨论,辩论,都是在训练你

去思考,而不是来确定一个真理。

为了达到最后的阶段,你需要:

1。强大的词汇量储备,约8000词以上

2。句型结构多样化。

3。学习经典的教材。

在循序渐进的学习过程中,你需要注意文化的差异和词组用法的多样性。千万不要不求甚

解,一定要搞清楚小词的不同种用法,像dotakemake等等的不同搭配会产生同的含义

例如:make trouble是制造困难的意思,那么make water是什么意思?江博老师讲了一个

故事:在上大学的时候,有一次和几个同学到外教家里玩,有一个同学想给外教倒茶水以

表示对外教的尊敬,他说, May I make water for you?”外教听了很不高兴,问他,“Are

you kidding?”,这位同学非常严肃的回答,“NoI am seriouslyI can make water for you

everytime!”外教当场勃然大怒,把这位同学逐出家门。这位殷勤的同学还不知就里。后来

才知道“make water”是上厕所的意思。

欧美人对于上厕所有很多避讳的说法,例如:go somewheresee Johnto

restroomanswer the call of nature,还有上面提到的make water等等。

所以,了解这些俗语是对话阶段必须积累的,例如:

black sheep 败家子,害群之马

rough diamond 可造之才

I"m green-eyes 我有点嫉妒

she is a man eater 她是个万人迷

lady-killer 师奶杀手

不仅如此,对于同一个短语说话的语气语调不同也会表示不同的意思。例如:come on

据说话的语气和语调可以分别表示:快一点,加油,抱怨,挑衅,撒娇等等不同的含义。

为什么会有这个问题?因为现在的口语设计的面太窄,我们根据语法造了一些英美人不说

的句子,是一种假流利。用这种单一的方法练口语,会浪费我们大量的生命。外教为了沟

通又不愿意和我们浪费时间,会和我们使用简单英语,所以你到了国外仍然听不懂纯正的

英语。例如:

chil out 别生气

won"t be long 就一会

而且,所谓的日常口语,实际上是各个领域的口语,例如体育医学旅游税务外贸等等,语

法和口语又经常脱离。所以导致我们在口语的时候,疲于应付听力和中英文的转换,说话

的时候,往往表情和内容不符,很多同学在搜肠刮肚找寻背过的句子或者寻求某一个单词

的翻译,往往拿出习惯地动作--摇头晃脑白眼直翻。

英语交流的时候的要掌握一个soften原则,就是smile/open your

posture/feel/touch手势/eye/n点头node

所以,要想听说意三位一体,就要重新组合我们身边的英语资源。要注意一些地道的口语

说法,突破limitation,不断的修正自己不要使用中国式英语的说法。要摆脱中文的思维方

式。不要预先在心里先翻译再说英语,而是应该直接想到英语对应的意思。例如:

There"s nothing to it=too easy

soar=fly very far

on the werge of breaking down

Bald Eagle 秃鹰

Good evening->hello

Good night->go to bed

Nice talking with you 再见

hell 地狱

go on net (蜘蛛)上网

surf on line上网

get initched 无感情的结婚

get married 有感情的结婚

crossing

interscetion十字路口

矿泉水

purified water

Mineral water

Bottled water

tap water

Quite a bit 很多

snap one"s fingers 赶快

sweet dreams 好梦,晚安

go Dutch

split the bill

It won"t work 行不通

give it a try 试一下

Does it make sense 你明白了吗?

It make sense!

leaningon 斜靠

overlastingarms 怀抱

If shoes fits,wear it

I don"t want point my fingers

I want to

I want buy

May I have

了解文化中的暗语对于地道的口语也很重要,例如:Chicken

legs在口语中表示“小姑娘”,skit,chick->漂亮女孩(girl),一般在讨论别人时使用,但不能对

女孩当面这样说。等等等等。

所以在口语的学习中应该把重点放在语汇深入的把握,特别是常用名次和动词。积累必要

的语汇。

例如:handgive sb a handgive sb a big hand(掌声),ask for one"s hand。中文中

技术熟练的老手,英文是green-hand,原来是指技术娴熟的园林工人。不要想当然的翻译

old-hand

对于这些一般的语汇,像国家地名特色,最好分类的学习。例如,说到意大利,你应该想

到:

Italy->Roma

Do as the Romans do

All roads lead to Rome

Rome wasn"t built in a day

如果说到泰国,就应该联想到:

Thailand->ladyman->人妖

Monk

并且应该联想到New ZealandSingapore这些东南亚旅游国家以及相关风俗人情的英语说

法。

说到荷兰,你至少要知道荷兰之宝的英语说法:

tulip

woodenshoes

wind mill

同时荷兰是一个允许同性恋的国家(gaylasbian),允许在酒吧少量吸食软毒品:可卡

因,大麻的国家(drug->毒品)。

而对于中国的一些专有名词,你也应该知道英语怎样说,以方便你在中国同外国朋友之间

的交流。

yulan->玉兰花

Kungfu->功夫

Fengshui->风水

Kowtow->磕头

Wushu->武术

在积累自己的语汇的同时,要注意语汇的实用原则。有些过时的语汇了解就可以了,不需

要刻意的记忆。例如,Beeper->呼机。而有些语汇是需要注意并记忆的,因为它和你的生

活息息相关。例如:LOGO->标志,China seal->中国印,handwritting->书法,netbug->

网虫,newbie->菜鸟。

另外,一些习语和谚语(Idioms & saying)也要掌握一些。例如:

It rains cats and dogs 瓢泼大雨

East or westhome is the best 金窝银窝不如自己的狗窝

Now or never 机不可失,时不再来

You name it 应有尽有

Diamond cuts Diamond 棋逢对手

习语是什么?习语idioms不是俚语,也不是短语,习语是就是那些你单词认识,句子却猜

不懂的东西。例如:

I smell mouse =something goes wrong

oh,nuts 他妈的

you,nuts 你这个神经病

托福考试实际上就是习语考试,我们推荐看电影的目的就是学习习语,学习文本中没有的

东西。

除了上面提到这些需要注意的问题,在口语的学习过程中,还要注意避免两个认识上的误

区:

误区之一:想通过英语角想提高自己的听力和口语。

很多同学觉得英语角可以提高自己的听力和口语,但是跑到英语角之后,发现每次都是翻

来覆去的在找人说,“What"s your name?”,“Where are you from?”,“What"s your

major?”,说完之后就没有话题了。如果下一次去英语角又见到这个人,一个简单的“Hi”之

后就无话可说了。最后往往是口语并没有实质的提高。

虽然有时候也会听某君在那里夸夸其谈,然后自己都听懂了,或者是某个老外在那里说的

话也都听懂了,就觉得自己的听力提高了。但是偶尔又听到老外对老外说话,又听不懂了

,回来听BBCVOA,看英文电影,还是听不懂。听力好像根本没有进步。究竟是怎么回

事呢?

这是因为,在英语角你能听懂中国人的口语,是因为大家都是中式的思维方式,使用的句

型都是课本上的,而大家学的课本又基本上一样,所以听不懂才叫奇怪。而老外来到英语

角,为了避免别人听不懂,为了避免无谓的解释上的麻烦,所以就会使用简单的通用的英

语来进行交流。

这样一来,英语角的作用就大打折扣了。那么怎样利用好英语角这个资源呢?既然英语角

不是练习听力的地方,那么它的用途就是为了找找一个人听你说话,听你的口语和表达。

所以建议你每次在去英语角之前,准备一个专题的小小演讲,把它背下来,然后准备好一

些别人可能问的问题及回答。然后到英语角找人听你的演讲。然后别人自然会认为你的英

语水平很高,先夸奖你一番。你就客气一番。当他问到别的那没有准备的问题时,你赶紧

说,“SorryI have another fish to fry”,然后赶紧溜走就好。这样你口语的自信就会不断

的增长,坚持下来,口语就会越来越流畅。

误区之二:外教至上。

很多同学认为找个外教就能学好口语,实际上却未必尽然。外教不是播音员,都存在不同

程度的口音。就像你是中国人,但是说的普通话未必标准一样。所以你跟着这样的外教学

口语,就像老外学中文却跑到浙江学到了一种带口音的普通话一样。

为什么会这样?因为外教的来源复杂。很多外教实际上只是在中国打工23年,一遍教学

一边旅游,过几年再换一个国家,丰富自己的人生阅历而已。况且很多外教未必有通过剑

桥的英语言教师的认证考试。所以外教并不一定是灵丹妙药。

虽然口语说起来比较随意,但是任何语言也是要看场合和环境的。如果是正式的场合,则

一定要穿正装,什么是正装?很多同学对此没有概念,以为正装就是穿西服打领带再配以

崭新的白球鞋! NO,正式装最主要的是颜色的搭配不要超过3种。否则会给人太花哨不庄重

的感觉。同时,和欧美人交流的时候要同他(她)保持1.5米的距离。欧美人认为自己身体

周围的1.5米范围是个人的安全空间,如果你进入这个空间,他(她)就会有不安全的感觉

例如见面的打招呼,一般熟悉的朋友之间说,“what"s up”,而领导人见面则一般要说,"How

do you do?“,”How are you?“,”How are you doing?“,而不能那么随便的说,”How"s

going?“,to young man你可以说,”Hey buddy,但是to old man说”Excuse me,Mister“则显

得比较尊重。

在宴会上如果你想认识一个人,一般是说,”May I have your name?“,这样显得比较礼貌

。我们从初中课本学的”What"s your name?“这种问法就是十分不礼貌的,一般用在警察给

犯罪嫌疑人做笔录询问确认姓名时。很多中国学生不懂就里,结果到了国外往往被认为不

懂礼仪,没有修养。

另外在科学领域,或者大学的环境里,尽量少用religious的用语。例如:My GodJesus

Christ!之类,因为研究科学的学者们常认为,宗教与科学有时候是相背的,所以,如果

你不是教徒,就尽量少说宗教用语。以前我们的课本中把“Oh My God!”当成感叹词来说

,其实是不对的,表示感叹其实有很多方法。

在同欧美人进行口语交流的时候,还要考虑到文化的差异问题。例如:“flirt”这个单词,中

文翻译为“调情”。你认为这是个褒义词还是贬抑词呢?对于中国人,如果你问他, “你常和

女孩子调情吗?”中国人即使做过,一般也会义正严词的说,“不,没有。”因为在中国人看

来这是作风问题。但是如果你问一个欧美人,他们会很高兴的对你说,“Of course, why

not?”因为他们认为一个男人如果不和女孩子调情是不可理解的,除非是同性恋或者性无能

。再例如,“individualism”个人主义,你认为是褒义还是贬义呢?中国人可能认为是贬义,

因为个人主义就是自私的表现。但是美国人认为个人主义是成熟的表现。这是美国的6个基

本价值观之一。如果你不能理解,那么你就无法同欧美人正常的交流。因为他所说的一些

问题要不你不能理解,要不你会理解错误。

同样的,在同欧美人交流的时候,也要注意中国人名字对他们的困扰,例如:

俞发金 Fucking You

史先生 Mr.shi->Miss"s

何女士 Mrs.He

像有上面这样情况的人最好是有一个英文名字,以方便同外国朋友的交流。

口语的的学习主要是训练口腔肌肉不同于中文的发音习惯,所以每天都要练习。有的朋友

担心自己一个人练习发错音也不知道,所以总是发音的时候很犹豫。这个问题可以通过复

读机的录音慧芳对比来解决。也可以通过录音软件的声音波形对比来纠正。新东方背单词III

里面就有这个功能,不过是针对单词的。你也可以下载一个叫做Cool EDIT Pro的录音软件

来进行句子的波形对比与纠正。

口语也是在学习用英语解释一件事的能力,for example,每学习一个单词要同时掌握词义,

反意词,学习一个句子要能替换和否定,这样,在交流的时候,才不会遇到障碍。

掌握住这样一些规律,有助于你口语的快速提高。而口语的水平又直接影响你听力的水平

听力之功是远远在听力之外的。美国人反应英语是0.1秒,中国人则是1秒。这将直接影响

中国人听力水平的提高。那么怎样才能减少听力的反应时间?这就需要从听力之外下功夫

之所以你听不懂,是因为你从来没见过这样的说法,从来没听过这样的发音,自己从来没

有这样的说过。究其根源就是:

1。你一直学习的是四六级考试类型的中式英语,而不是纯正的日常生活英语。所以你对老

外说话的句式不熟悉,不适应,不能快速的反应出对方所要表达的意思。而你平时张嘴说

英语的时间又比较少,偶尔几次又是在朗读课文。所以你不会说出这样的句子。

2。你的发音不标准,很多单词发错音。所以当老外正确的发音的时候,你反而不知道他说

的是哪个单词。当他给你写出来的时候,往往你才恍然大悟。加上平时你很少使用连读,

弱读,缩读等等口语上常用的方法,而且你的口语断句换气是中式的,而老外是英语方式

的。所以你才听不懂。

所以,为了提高听力,首先要纠正你的发音,使你自己的语音要好,尽量往播音员的水平

要求自己。平时阅读的时候,邀阅读原版的报刊图书,适应纯正英语的说话方式。然后练

习纯正的口语,把托福听力考试真题,当作口语教材来练。使你自己的口语是纯正的英语

,而不是中式英语。休闲娱乐的时候尽量看原版的电影,听VOABBC的广播。听英文的

流行歌曲。这样你的听力才能好。

听力的提高是step by step的,至少需要1000个小时的listenlistenlisten。需要精听与

范听的结合,当听到400小时的时候会有一个周左右的痛苦时间,觉得自己什么都听不懂了

。不必担心,这里有一个量变到质变的过程。

朱?g基总理的翻译朱彤在北外做报告的时候说,她的听力也是在某一阶段遇到障碍,忽然

间怎么听怎么别扭,然后过一段时间又好了。这样的反复几次以后,有一天在宿舍的水房

洗衣服,旁边放着收音机听短波,信号一会好一会不好,她也就有心没心的听着,忽然之

间,当信号再度清晰的时候,她发现自己全都能听懂了,而且自此以后,听什么都能听懂

了。

江博老师在北外上大学的时候,也遇到过类似的事情。那时候他天天戴着耳机听短波,吃

饭也听,走路也听,只要一有时间就听。也是很长时间处于迷迷茫茫,似懂非懂之间。有

一天晚吃过晚饭,他听着短波走在校园里,忽然看见柳树下站着的是学校里的两个美女,

一个是校花,一个是系花。两个美女正在聊天,不知为什么忽然看着他对他嫣然一笑。江

博老师说那时候他觉得金光一闪,广播里的内容就全部听懂了。于是江博老师称之为“黄昏

顿悟法”。在讲座的时候,江博老师的故事引起在座学生的一阵笑声,然后在讲座结束的时

候有个学生问,“你为什么把这叫做’黄昏动物法‘呢?有什么特殊含义吗?”

随着你的不断学习和进步,你的听力将有这样的四种境界:

1。按时间听磁带做题,最低要求,做完对答案

2。把听过的磁带的语音语调标出来,语音语调就那么多规则,就看你是否做过,然后模仿

磁带

3。把听力段子写下观察笔记,场景故事人物,把每一道题考点写下来

4BBCVOA,挑战自我,超越自我,每天比较昨天的你,要有进步,不要和别人比,没

有可比性,但可以激励自己,自律,这是一种健康的心态。

关于听力材料的泛听,不建议只听固定的材料,而是乱听英语,实践至上。影响你听不懂

英语的障碍主要表现在四个方面:

1。听英语的单位影响你的听力。根据听力水平的不同,一般初学者听到的是单词,当进阶

以后,听到的就是短语了。随着水平的不断提高,听力的单位已经是句子了。最后听力突

破的阶段,你听到的是思想。所以不必奢求一下子听力就能突破,事情的发展总是循序渐

进的。

2。语速太快听不懂。由于英语的语速本来就快,再加上弱读,缩读,等等,往往让我们不

知所云,实际上这和我们的口语有关。

3。听不懂导致走神,更加的听不懂。

4。口语机会太少太差导致听不懂,因为你从没这样的说过,所以对这种表达方式不适应,

有一个反应的延迟。所以,如果你口语会说纯正的英语,你的听力就会提高。你的听力和

口语同样基本上是在同样的高度上的。你能听得懂中式英语,你就能说出中式英语。你听

不懂纯正的英语,你就说不出纯正的英语。

要想达到英语的语感境界,不但要培养自己对英语的兴趣,还要让自己每天都要接触英语

的听说读写译,要使自己使用英文的时间超过中文,并且多注意英语中的小词多用。例如

get270个用法,可以替代任何动词,实际上用最简单的单词也可以表达最富杂的思想

,只是我们平常使用的少而已。英语和别的东西一样,熟能生巧。

英语学到最后的最高境界,就是无为而学,就好像在玩一样,是一种娱乐。已经溶进生活

的每一个角落了。

例如,看一下我们的手表,至少会看到下面的英语:

quatz->石英

water proff->防水

resistent->防震

stantless steal->不锈钢

象这样的英语在我们的身边有很多,只不过你平常没有细心的去观察罢了。

听力和口语的基本功也来自于基础英语的学习,例如在新概念的学习过程中,把课文每课

35遍,听不懂再看书,这样听力就会相应的提高,跟着《圣经》的磁带,美国诗歌散

文选的磁带也可以很好的练习听力和口语。

新概念英语 New Concept English,作为一套经典的英语基础教育教材,同其它一些也曾在

国内分别流行过一段时期的各种教材相比,日益显现出其权威的地位。新概念的教材分为

32开本的旧版和16开的新版,这两个版本有一定的差别,旧版的第四册是60课,新版是

48课。但无论哪个版本,对你的学习效果都是一样的。差别不大。新版本的课文只是更加

适应英语在现在的社会发展趋势。很多人都在通过学习新概念,希望通过这套教材提高自

己的英语水平。那么应该怎样学习新概念才能获得最有效的效果呢?

我觉得如果是一点英语基础也没有的人,那就按部就班的从第一册学到第四册。但是有过

一定的英语基础的人,应该怎样计划自己的学习呢?有的人从第二册开始学,有的人从第

三册开始学,这样好不好呢?既然新概念是一个基础教育的教材,那就应该把基础打好。

我在北京的日子,把新概念一路学下来,觉得对于一个有一些英语基础的人,应该这样学

新概念:

如果你的基础不太好打算从第二册开始学新概念,那么你先搞到一套东田的新概念第一册

的讲座视频,也就是外研社拍的那套,仔细的看一遍,同时买一套新东方的新概念网络课

堂光盘版。同步的看第一册。把第一册的基础打好。然后,报新概念4册的班,新东方的,

戴尔的,环球雅思的,都可以,只要这个学校能讲新概念四册,老师的实力就一定不错。

为什么要先学第四册?因为新概念只有第四册是原汁原味的英语。而且你已经有了一定的

基础。如果你从第二册学起,再学第三册,那么总是觉得有难度在里面,可能班上完了,

学到的东西不能很好的消化,可能只能掌握60%不到。而这时候,往往大多数人学完第三

册就不继续学了,因为感觉第三册已经很不好消化理解了。准备回去好好复习一下,结果

别的杂事一多,慢慢的就放下了英语的学习。而先学第四册虽然一开始有些吃力,但是只

要你咬牙坚持两个星期,你就会慢慢的跟上老师你的进度,你会发现自己的提高很快,很

有成就感。而且学习到的是纯正的英语。同时回家辅助于外研社的视频做预习和新东方的

网络课堂做复习。

当第四册学完以后,你会有或然开朗的感觉,你会真正的体会到英语是什么。然后你再报

第三册的班,这时候,你就不会觉得第三册很难了。而且课堂上老师所讲的,一般你能消

化吸收 80%甚至更多。如果你配合外研社视频和新东方网络课堂学习新概念第三册很有效

果的话,你可以考虑在学习完第三册以后,不报第二册的班,直接使用外研社的视频和网

络课堂自学第二册。如果觉得吃力,那就再报第二册的班,继续这样的学习。

无论那种方法,当你的第二册也学习完以后,休息一个月,然后再报一个新概念四册的班

,再学习一遍。需要注意的是,戴尔和环球雅思新概念四册讲的是48课的新版本,新东方

讲的是60课的旧版本。虽然都讲不完,但是里面有些课是不一样的。如果你学两遍新概念

四册的话,建议你先学新版本的,再学旧版本的,这样可以在不同的老师,不同的讲课风

格下学到更多的东西。当这一遍新概念四册学下来的时候,你的英语基础已经很好了,可

以适应往任何一个专业上去学习专业英语了。

如果你的基础本来就比较好,想从新概念第三册开始学,那么我建议你最好是先通过外研

社的视频和新东方的网络课堂把一二册自己学习一遍,然后去戴尔英语上张建成的新概念

四册的课,坚持着跟下来,通过外研社的视频预习,通过网络课堂的光盘复习。然后再去

学第三册的班,休息一个月以后,再去学新东方的新概念四册,这样不但英语学的比较扎

实,而且比较的轻松。

无论怎样,不要认为自己的水平不够,或者暂时不需要等种种原因不去学第四册。如果你

不早一点学第四册,你的英语开窍就会比别人晚许多。当我上完新概念的全四册的课,总

结完学习新概念的经验以后,正好有机会听到了戴尔英语的张建成副校长的讲座,他是建

议先学新概念第四册,然后再第三册,第二册,第一册。他说,这样的顺序下来,非常有

注意英语学习信心的建立。而且,如果你学的够仔细,当第一册学完的时候,你完全有能

力到北京或者其它城市的任何一个英语学校应聘新概念一二册的教师。因为你先学的第四

册,所以,在你听第三册,特别是第二册和第一册的时候,你的心态是完全不同的,上课

的时候,你将会比你同班的同学听到感悟到更多的信息。

下面我们按照正常的顺序来说一下怎样学习新概念,内容来自新东方的江博老师基础英语

部李辉老师的讲座。

新概念的一二三四册的学习都应该先复习单词,再预习听课文的录音。

在学习新概念的时候,单词的扩展和记忆主要使用分类联想法association,同时强调正确

的发音pronunciation

例如,关于“大”的单词,我们有:

largehuge 形体上的大

generousbeat easy 慷慨心大,大大方方

vasthigh road 面积上的大,大马路

metropolis 大城市

同时,利用词根词缀来记忆单词也是很不错的方法:

pel->

expel->开除

comple->强迫

imple->冲动

propel->推进

dispel->驱散

我们也可以用词类变化以及后缀变化的方式来背单词,例如:

author

authorities

the authentic

authorize

authoritarian

另外还有一些另类的背单词方法,也可以使用:

monotonous 单调(这个单词中有4O,确实很单调)

inundate 洪水(修女去约会)

incidentally=by the way

giraffe 长颈鹿(两个ff很像长颈鹿的脖子)

edfice大厦(挨地非死)

这种背单词的方法我不推荐,缺乏科学性,不利于正确的理解英语和单词的本质。

当你的单词量到了一定的程度的时候,你就会注意到,在使用英语的时候,选词代表你的

身份。例如美国的情景戏剧《Friends》,里面的六个主人公都是社会普通阶层的人,所以

他们的对白都很浅显易懂,很少有比较难的词汇在里面。但是你再看《sex and city》,里

面讲述的是上流社会人物的故事,上流社会的人士是以说高难词汇和法语为荣的,所以,

《欲望都市》Script里有很多的单词你不认识。

而且,当你在写作的时候,就要把日常词汇变成正式的词汇。雅思1年的学习才可以提高1

分,但3个月词汇的学习,在写作时词汇的变化却可以提高0.5分。例如下面的词汇替代:

make->render

consider->dream

avoid->shunsteerclear

for->in the interset of

except->with the excption of

near->in the vicinity of (第四册重点)

kick the bucket(死翘翘)->pass away

当然仅仅使用高难词汇未必就能获得好的效果。在选择你要使用的词汇的时候,更要注意

词汇的语言色彩。例如,如果你想说一个人胆子很大的勇敢,就应该使用bold,如果是有

勇无谋的勇敢,可以使用foolhardy,如果是智勇双全的勇敢,那么使用valiant最好。

学习新概念的四册课本分别应该达到下面的水平:

Dialogue->对话,一册的目的是双方流畅的交流。

Monologue->独白,二册的目的是能正常的表达自己,解放自己。

Discussion->讨论,三册的学习应该让你达到口译练习,交替翻译,同声传译的初步境界。

Debate->辩论,四册的学习应该让你有英语speech,演讲的能力。

谈到新概念的学习就不能不谈课文的背诵问题。如果你有时间,建议你学一册背一册。如

果时间紧张的话,可以只背新概念二册的前15课,三册的前30课,四册要求全背。三四册

的背诵要养成良好的背诵习惯。首先要分析出文章的结构,是总分总还是总分分,还是分

分总。总之就是要从逻辑上分析出作者的思路和结构,这样不仅仅有利于你课文的背诵,

还有助于你日后写作的布局。在具体背诵的时候,长句子要抓住gist,找谓语,再看定状补

。这样将使你日后习惯于复合句的使用。如果你对背诵特别感兴趣的话,建议你再背一下

《新东方背诵50篇》。

如果你选择全部背诵的话,需要注意的要点:

一册的全背诵,需要注意同一种意思的不同种表达方法,例如:

I like this

I love this better

I perfer...to...

Sth. is my favorite

二册是在构建语法框架,24个语法点分四次复习全部背诵。同时注意短语的使用,例如:t

ake no interest in

三册课文第一段讲理论,第二段引发故事,必须背第一段。使用激情联想法学习三册可以

使你的词汇量激增,背诵可以让你掌握优美的句式结构。例如:exert a fascination on

四册课文是说理与说明,基本上是摘录的文章,是纯正的正宗的英语。要求全部背诵。例

如:be of an indescribable for sth。但是需要注意的是,第四册课文的中文翻译只供参考

,并不是翻译的很好。

当你学习完新概念以后,强烈建议你继续学习《走遍美国》,这套教材正好和《新概念》

互相补充,《新概念》是英国人编写的基础英语教材,而《走遍美国》则是美国教育署使

7年的时间编写拍摄的生活英语教材。这两套教材的学习有利于你英语知识结构的完整。

很多同学学习新概念的目的是为了准备四六级的考试,关于BT的四六级考试,在这里简单

的说明一下如何准备四六级考试以及考试的技巧,这一部分是整理自戴尔英语副校长张建

成老师和新东方国内考试部范猛老师的讲座。

四六级考试自推出的时候就是不完善的,虽然经过多年的修正,但是无法解决其考试指导

思想与运转体系上的问题。就像一个一出生就先天残疾的婴儿,无论怎样的手术修正,也

不可能和正常人一样的健康。所以,四六级考试不能考察出学生的真正英语水平,只能检

查出学生的应付考试的水平。

考过四六级的学生,看不懂给欧美9岁儿童阅读的原版《哈里波特》,在听说上甚至听不懂

欧美小学生的交谈。而是否能听说,则是衡量文盲的最低标准。所以,准备四六级的考试

所付出的努力和英语水平的提高相比,不成正比,效率低下。

但是由于目前四六级考试和大学教育的学位文凭硬性的挂上了勾,所以四六级还必须考。

作为曾经参与过四六级考试出题与批卷的张建成老师和实战经验丰富的新东方国内考试部

,为大家总结了一些宝贵的学习方法和考试经验,可以帮助大家事半功倍的准备四六级考

试,而且同时也能迅速的提高你对英语的认识和水平。

我们大多数准备四六级考试的学生的问题大都在于词汇单薄,语法混乱。关于语法的问题

,建议参考的看一下高教出版社的一本红皮的《高等英语语法》就可以解决。如果找不到

可以看一下《剑桥英语语法》也很不错。然后我们来看怎么考试。

先来说听力考试部分。由于答题试卷发下来以后不能启封,启封的话就会被取消考试资格

,但是我们可以在不破坏封条的情况下掀开来看,考试规则里面并没有说不可以,我们可

以利用这个逻辑上诡辩来看一下听力的选择答案。

然后根据答案的选项,你就能猜测到题目会是怎样的场景,例如,如果有”declear“这个单

词就要和海关,公安等场景联系起来,因为这里是申报的场所。如果有” menual“则有可能

是和餐饮有关的场景。有过有”Dear John letter(绝交信)“则是和感情有关的场景。这样

提前想好可能的场景以后,听录音的时候就不会太紧张,因为很多对话你已经能想到可能

怎么说了。

而对于数字题则要经过简单的计算,需要你提前做好准备,以便快速在演算纸上迅速的计

算。

当监考官宣布考试开始以后,在放录音之前的考卷拆封条时间是最宝贵的时间,这时候要

做到一心六用。

第一要迅速的把刚才看过的题的可能答案标注出来,然后继续往后看题并猜测可能的场景

和答案。同时耳朵要注意听录音的播放。但是,录音的一开始是考试的英文说明,这时候

不要管他,继续往后做题。

如果不好猜测出答案的,先划掉明显错的答案再猜,凭着这种直觉基本上都能猜对的。

张建成老师曾经对所带过的很多班做过相关的试验,一般先做题后听录音可以达到70%的

正确率,但是先听录音再做题却只有40%的正确率。因为在考试的紧张环境下,如果听录

音的时候有遗漏或听不懂的部分,你大脑的注意力就都转移到疑惑上去了,因此导致做题

的逻辑性思维能力降低。

所以尽量在考试没开始之前尽量多的做题,选出可能的答案。这样当你听到”There for“的

时候,停止往后的做题,回到第一题,这时候,和考题相关的录音就开始播放了,你一边

听录音,以便验证你的答案。第一题听不懂不要慌。因为第一题往往是比较难的。继续注

意听第二题,不要因为第一题的影响而导致第二题根本没听到。

按照这样的考试方法,你的听力考试实际上是很轻松的,有更多的思考时间来验证推敲你

的答案。

然后我们来看写作考试及潜在的评分要求:

1。思路要清晰。作文给人的整体印象非常重要,是得分关键。

2。不要涂改。卷面整洁上不要丢分。

3。书写正规。不要使用华丽但不易辨认的字体,考试不是书法比赛。

4。写作内容切忌太俗。中国考生根据题目要求的写作往往内容一致,没有思想,千篇一律

,实际上这是中学中文作文没学好的表现。

5。谨防作文里的陷阱。

所以,正确的应对作文考试的方法就可以分为这么几方面:

1。注意审题,进行有效的字数控制。考试题目中的三句话实际上就是作文三个段落的具体

内容,把其扩展展开写就可以了。

但是要注意不要千篇一律的写,第一,第二,第三。。。。。。这样的作文没有新意,容

易落入俗套,如果确实这样写比较好,也要注意使用不同的表达方式。例如,“首先”有

1001种说法:First forabove allto begin within the first placefor one thing。。。

。。。所以不要总是使用FirstlySecondly。。。。。。因为If you want be the bestyou

must be the different。像“第二”,我们也可以说成”其次“,”Beside“,第三可以说成”Last

but not least“等等等等。

2。作文的第一句话非常重要,往往决定了你的作文分数。后面写的好坏不影响大局。因为

考官阅卷的时候,将面对大量的试卷,工作量很大,所以必须要保证阅卷的速度。阅卷人

一般是看第一句定下基本分数,后面只是验证是否值这个分数。如果后面写的不好,可能

会稍微的扣分,如果写的好再稍微的加分,但很少会再大幅度的变化你的分数。

所以第一句写不好,会直接影响你作文得高分。所以一定要注意,不要使用I think这样太主

观,太口语化的开头,例如,I think you are a hooligen就不如You,I think are a hooligen

这样的写法得分高,因为后者还使用了一个倒装的语法在里面。

那么怎样写好四六级作文的第一句呢?首先一定要是一个复合句,这个句子的单词量在40

个左右最好,一上来就会把阅卷人震慑住。那么怎么准备这个长复合句呢?你可以从新概

念三册里面挑出五个黄金句型十个钻石词组背下来,考试的时候直接套用。例如像下面这

样的句子:

It"s impossible to make more than the wildest guess at......

Education is one of keywords of......

在词汇的使用上,多使用一些像vitalpervade之类的词,多使用一些多音节的单词,会有

助于更好的得分。

3。写完之后要回来一个字一个字的检查,避免小错误导致丢小分。

4。一定要在15分钟内写完,保证有再检查一遍的机会。

接下来我们来简单的说一下怎样应对阅读考试部分。阅读理解,不仅仅是阅读能力的考试

,实际上是一次和出题人斗智斗勇的心理素质考试。

所以,你要知道,一般来讲,第一篇文章最难的,是出题人震慑你用的,如果不会或者觉

得太难可以不作,或者放到最后做。然后你倒着做,先做最后一篇,这样会容易些,也能

建立起你对考试的自信。如果第一题对你来说不难的话,那就无所谓了,只要顺的话,怎

么做都行。

做阅读的方法一般有这样三种:

1。看懂后做题。

2。边看边做题。

3。看不懂做题。

实际上这三种做题方式都不值得推荐。第一种看懂后做题的人简直就是白痴。你也不想想

35分钟的阅读考试时间要看4篇文章,每篇200250字左右,还有一定的超纲词在里面

,就是出题人在35分钟内也看不完。

所以,正确的答题方法是,先看题目,再看文章的第一句和最后一句话,第二句和倒数第

二句话,这里一般是文章的Topic所在。但要一定要注意看最后是否有”but“,如果有的话要

特别注意。然后根据题目的要求在文章里面找Keywords,再一目十行的找数字。

这样的话35分钟的时间可能还会有剩余,阅读理解考的就是时间。这才是解决问题的关键

所在,所以平时做题练习的时候就要养成这样的习惯。

最后来谈一下四六级考试中的词汇问题。四六级考试中的词汇还不属于太变态,最变态的

要数国内研究生入学的英语考试。出题组的几个老教授蹲在宾馆里翻英语词典,逐个看着

那些即偏又难的解释词条,一旦发现某个词条的解释自己不知道,就做个标记,然后拿着

词典去找出题组的另外那些教授,”你看,考这个单词的这个词条怎么样?够难吧?“。”不

行“,另一个教授说,”这个单词我在讲课的时候讲解过,如果考这个词条,听过我课的学生

就都有可能作对,这样对全国其他的考生不公平。“于是大家又回到宾馆各自的房间再翻词

典,知道找到一个单词的词条是每一个出题组的教授都不知道的,然后根据这个词条变成

考题。研究生入学考试的英语题目就是这样千辛万苦来的,也就是说,给出题组的教授这

样一份卷子,他们自己业未必能做的出来。(附注:根据我们前面提到的词汇记忆法,这

个问题将迎刃而解,无论一个单词有怎么样的解释词条,都不会脱离我们在一开始给词汇

总结的规律,所以就不会存在认识一个单词就只知道几个有限的学过的解释词条,而是你

能联想到所有可能的解释。但是为了保留讲座和这个小专题的完整性,我们依旧在下面讨

论词汇的问题,但是有些不科学的方法我会在文后批注。)

对于考生来说,四六级考试中的词汇一般是有三分之一100%全会,有三分之一100%不会

,还有三分之一可能会也可能不会。这是正常的现象。

四级词汇包括我们初高中学习过的18002300个单词,还包括四级考试大纲要求的约430

0个单词。但实际上这里面有一些单词是重复的,只不过是解释的意思不一样而已,也就是

说一个单词考多种解释词条的问题。这样的话,只要复用式掌握2500个关键单词就可以了

。同时要搞清楚单词的搭配关系,熟悉固定的搭配。六级词汇也大致相仿,只不过数量上

稍微多一些而已。

那么怎么记忆这些单词呢?应该在短期内集中突破。2个月内四六级单词过23遍。单词的

记忆是重复的过程,任何人任何方法都不能让你一遍就记住所有的单词。考试大纲要求的

词汇至少要记忆34遍。

单词记忆的方法有很多种,你要找到适合自己的方法,当然也不要只使用一个方法,应该

多种方法相结合的记忆效果最佳。

1。死记硬背法。

  很多同学从A开始背,但是背不了几天就泄气了,背了今天的忘了昨天的,于是就从Z

A背,结果也没有坚持下来。因此建议从S开始背,因为S开头的单词最多,而且接近词

汇的一半,当从S背到Z,再从RA背。这样心理上的压力和厌倦感会少一些。(附注:笔

者认为这种方法适合在最后总复习的时候使用,一开始记忆单词就使用这种方法不科学,

而且真的效率低下。)

2。英英解释法。

  例如:pig,我们就背中文的意思“猪”,这样的做法是不对的,而应该查英英词典,查

出并记忆该单词的英文解释,常用词组和例句。这样,不但会扩展你描述一个事件和问题

的多元化方式,而且有助于你形成地道的英语语感。(附注:这是非常值得推荐的方法,

有助于你快速的达到后面我们所说的英语单词记忆的第四个阶段,也就是最好的阶段。)

  感兴趣的话你可以查一下朗文英英词典,看一下下面的单词的英文解释和常用词组以

及例句。

image->印象

seal->封存

scream->尖叫

flaw->缺点

3。形象联想法。

形象化是一种能力,也是背单词是一种能力。例如:

schedule->时间表(从汉语拼音的角度可以看成->车堵了)

gloom->忧愁的(从前两个字母的拼音读法->隔离->导致->忧愁)

amateur->业余的(根据英语发音的中文谐音->矮模特->一般就是->业余的)

ambition->野心(根据英文发音的中文谐音->俺必胜->野心)

assassinate->暗杀(把单词拆分为->assassin,吃掉ate

(附注:这种方法笔者不推荐,因为极为不科学,容易影响你对单词的正确发音和误导你

对单词含义的理解。而且往往单词的拆分也是错误的。)

4。词根词缀法。

  这是根据英语的发展规律来理解记忆单词的一种方法。例如:

词根duce是表lead的意思,所以有:

produce->产品(pro->before

reduce->减少(re->back

introduce->介绍(intro->inter

seduce->引诱(se->away)

(un)consciously(没有)意识到

(in)competent(没有)竞争能力的

(附注:这是笔者最推荐的单词记忆方法,是最科学的一种方法,但是目前国内研究这种

方法的理论还不是很成熟,因此要求学习者不要盲从,而是应该经过慎密的思考,去伪存

真,真正的掌握词根词缀的精华所在。)

5。类比的方法。

  进行同义词的比较,有助于加深对词汇的阿理解和记忆。(附注:这也是GRE考试词

汇记忆的推荐方法,推荐。)例如:

convert->完全不同的转变

vay->差异性的变化

alter->部分的变化

confirm->完全,坚固

convince->完全征服

unceas(e)ingly->毫不停止的

6。生活中学英文。

  这是利用生活环境中的一切机会和条件来学习英文,充分利用琐碎的垃圾时间。例如

,逛街的时候多注意一下英文的广告,商标和品牌,注意一下日常生活用品上的英文。使

用计算机的时候就注意一下计算机相关的英文,使用数码相机的时候就注意一下数码产品

的相关英语单词。再和词根词缀法相结合进行联想。例如:

innovation->革新(nov->新)

联想:novel->新颖的,小说,nova->新星

modem->调制解调器

联想:modulate->调制,demodulate->解调(de->分解拆开)

rejoice->高兴(re-joy)/飘柔的英文商标

safeguard->保护(safe-guard)/舒服佳的英文商标

founder->创立者/方正的英文商标

  在使用上述方法记忆单词的同时,要特别注意单词的多义性,这里往往是考点。而且

往往是容易的单词最常考。例如:

want->需要,贫穷

seal->图章,海豹

court->朝廷,法庭,建筑,娱乐场,球场,追求(只能是男的追女的),招致,相互关联

的意思

anchor->锚,隐士

  另外也要注意一些词组在口语中的用法,例如:pick up在口语中一般会这样用,你和

你的Girlfriend晚上约会,你说,“晚上7点我开车去接你”,在英语的口语中一般会说,“I will

pick you up at 7 tonight.”

  无论你使用哪种单词记忆方法,一般都会经历下面描述的四个阶段:

1。看见单词不认识,不知道什么意思。

2。似曾相识,但是不知道什么意思。

3。知道该单词的汉语意思。

4。知道英语意思,忘记汉语的意思。

  在记忆单词的过程中,每一个上升期面对一个平台期,所以不要为某一阶段的停滞不

前而泄气。你要为自己定下一个更高的目标,即使达不到也会比现在更高。况且只要你努

力,就会达到,这也是对自己毅力的挑战。

  所以,不要把记忆单词看成是Germany(折磨你),而是应该养成良好的习惯:

1。每天坚持学英文,不要间断。而且学习要投入,否则没有效果。

2。考前反复看四六级真题,近5年的考试真题10套就足够,再多也没有意义。

  在上大学期间的有一年冬天,新东方的范猛老师坐火车回家过年,由于在硬座车厢里

晚上比较清净又无事可做,就拿出词汇书来背单词,结果胳膊冻在了车窗上都不知道。学

习英语就要有这样一种韧劲和精神。

  关于时间的分配,一定要科学。考试的准备过程,也是你英语水平提高的过程。在这

些过程中,进步最快的要数阅读和词汇,进步最慢的则是听力和写作。所以,阅读和词汇

尽量在短期内突破,而听力和写作则要打持久战。(附注:我建议听力的练习不要先不要

听考试真题。直接范听和对照Script精听BBCVOA,或者 TOEFL历年考试真题。然后考

前再听四六级的历年考试真题熟悉一下。因为你能听懂BBC,VOA,TOEFL的话,再听四六

级很容易,你会觉得四六级的听力说话语速太慢,简直就是弱智。需要注意的是VOA不要

听慢速英语,要听正常语速的。)

  当你在准备四六级考试的时候,包括以后准备TOEFLGRE的时候,一定要注意调整

你的生活节奏。你可能会觉得新东方老师的语速都很快,实际上这是因为我们平常的生活

节奏慢导致的,我们普通大众是生活在一个低效率的社会中。如果你想成为一个精英,你

就要提高你的工作和学习的效率,加快你的生活节奏。让你的一生体会更多的精彩。

  为了成为一个社会的精英,获得更多的职业竞争力,很多人选择了到国外留学深造,

这酒不可避免的要进行各种各样的国外考试,TOEFLGMATGRE的学习方法在《寻找

出国留学的方向》一文中简单的提到过,下面主要讲一下怎样准备IELTSBECTOEIC

考试,这部分内容是根据新东方国外考试部熊莹,何钢,张皓,刘军,李元莎和环球雅思

的胡骥良和管乐老师的讲座整理而成。

IELTS的全称叫做国际英语语言测试系统,是去英联邦国家留学移民需要进行的英语水平考

试。

  新东方国外考试部的何钢老师主讲IELTS的写作部分课程。雅思的作文时间是1个小时

,包括两个Task

Task 1 ->report->20分钟150单词

Task 2 ->essay->40分钟250单词

  这两个写作的Task要求的篇幅长,时间紧,主要是考你在不可预测的情况下表达思想

的能力。

  IETLS作文要求在Task1中不能有Comment。而且IETLS作文评分是analytical方式的,

不同于TOEFLglobal方式。所以,雅思作文不关心你写的内容,而是关心你怎么写你的

内容。

  所以你要注意的是Arguments,idea,evidence这三个方面。并且论证要充分。一定要找

到支持自己的观点,也要找到不支持的观点。这方面和四六级的作文考试不同,不要把四

六级的作文经验拿到雅思作文考试中来,四六级得高分得作文在雅思作文考试中很有可能

得低分。

  例如现面的雅思作文一个考题:Cars have had a more negative than positive effect

on the quality of our lives.

  对于上面这个题目和road rage的如果只是罗列,得6分。如果能举例比较以及分析为

什么,得7分。

  很多考生作文的时候跑题。跑题的原因有下面几种:

1。题目中的单词不认识,例如:juveniledelinquency

2。题目比较抽象不好描述,例如:幸福在哪里?高科技导致创造性丧失。

3。写作的重点没有把握,论据不充分。应该多举例,比较关系,分类,下定义,使用数字

和事实,个人经历等。

  在论据的使用中,应尽量避免以下论据,以免得不到高分。

1。名人名言。例如“brave new world(美好新世界-莎士比亚)

2。谚语。例如:Just as a coin has two sides...... No pains no gains

3。描述。

4。不相关的例子,不可信的论据。

  写作的时候应该用自己的话表达自己的观点,并且需要注意:

1。主题明确,条理清楚。

2。举例证明,要feasible

3。语法准确,表达思想要准确。

  这样的雅思作文才有可能得高分。希望大家在练习做模拟题的时候多加注意。

雅思的口语考试部分包括:

1introduction and interview 3-4分钟

2persional long-turn 4-5分钟

3two-way discussion 3-4分钟

  由于口语考试的考官来自世界各地,因此就存在一个国际口音(International Accents

)的适应问题。这是必须的技能。例如,印度人往往把th发音为[d],“thirty”他们往往发音

为“dirty”。而考试的题型多样(Various types),并且需要你Answer while you listen。所

以你在平时练习听力的时候,就不能依靠听CRI来提高,应该听BBCVOA,这样才切实有

助于你听力和口语的提高。

  雅思的听力考试占2030分,大约3248题。考生可以在试卷上记笔记,一般考点清

晰。听力部分的考试需要实力加技巧,新东方国外考试部在这方面总结了大量的实战经验

。听力考试部分不听题就能作对75%的题目。但是你不能完全依靠考试技巧,平时踏踏实

实的打好基础才是使你一生受益的关键。

  我们这样仔细了解考试的目的,不仅仅是为了取得高分,更是为了更有效的为储备各

种环境下的需要的英语。

  在口语上,作为语言基本单位的单词一定要发音准确,特别是动名词发音不同的单词

,例如:resume n/vpresent n/adv/v。然后是连读的问题,不仅要能听懂,而且还要能

说,说得时候也要注意语音语调的正确与流畅。

  为此,在准备IELTS的考试之前,你需要:

1。最好具备六级的词汇标准。

2。每天都要进行口语的练习。

3。语法要过硬,不能含糊。

  而听说成绩的提高是一个缓慢的过程,为此要求你

1。练习。

2。反复。

3。坚持。

  最后,备考IETLS需要注意:

1。变题的问题,IELTS官方网站明确表示五年内不会变题。如果要变题,要至少在半年前

通过官方网站发布相关消息。

2IETLS没有真题,市面上出售的都是模拟题。每次的考试真题试卷在考试完后就地销毁

3。要明确考试的实质。可以参考官方提供的样题:IETLS one,two。这是若干年前的真题

。你会发现IELTS是一个人性话的考试,起核心内容就是交流信息,欣赏英语的美丽。

4。考试地点的选择。在北京进行考试,口语部分很难得高分,因为北京那考生的口语能力

普遍较高,而在一些偏远城市考试,口语则很有可能得满分,具体在哪里考试,取决于你

自己是否方便以及你是否能接受考点所在地区的治安水平。

  如果你不出国留学只在国内发展,为了增加自己的竞争实力,也可以选择BECTOEI

C的学习和考试。

  在计划经济时期,我们所追求的一生是这样度过的:上大学,然后变成SSGG(硕士

哥哥),然后找个国企铁饭碗,爬个官职,然后退休进干休所,没有混上一官半职的,进

养老院,然后了此一生。

  但是现在,随着我们向市场经济的转型,这种思想已经不现实了,已经落伍了。很多

优秀的人才选择进入外企工作,谋求更好的个人职业发展,给社会创造更多的剩余价值。

  而很多外企在招人的时候,要求有英语水平的证明,目前比较多的使用BECTOEIC

考试成绩来衡量。

  BEC考试由剑桥93年推出,虽然叫做商务英语,但并不是教你怎样做生意,很多人对

此造成了误解。BEC是考核的是商务运作中英语使用的规范化。目前,国航,巴黎银行,

人保,摩托罗拉等很多国际型大企业都承认BEC成绩。同时BEC高级的考试成绩可以取代I

ELTS的考试成绩申请一些著名的英联邦国家的大学。

  TOEIC考试1979年由ETS推出,200210月进入中国,弥补了TOEFL考试没有口语

的不足。0-999分。也得到了世界上很多企业的认可。如果进日韩公司要600分以上,派驻

750分以上。

  笔者推荐,无论你是否出国,无论你是否进外企,只要你学英语,到了一定的阶段一

定要学BEC,因为这是目前国内唯一一套交给你商务英语礼仪和规范的教材。这对你的办

公英语是非常有帮助的。我们中国人本来礼仪就不规范。学了一堆各种方式的英语,但是

却不会书写标准格式的NoteMemoFaxEmail等等。这在你日常办公的事务中是最常

见的,如果这方面你总是犯错误,会给人素质低下的感觉。

所以我建议先学 BEC初中高级,然后再学TOEIC,这样即学会了规范和MBA相关的一些入

门知识,又接近通用英语。如果你时间充裕,也可以考虑学习LCCI职业英语考试的课程,

这门课程将培养你的business sense,例如:资源控制->部分调控->合理调度等等,还同

时提高你的English skillcomputer skill。)对于BEC的初级课程,建议学习,但是对于考

试,则不推荐,因为题目简单,而且没有什么用处,BEC的中级和高级证书在你求职的时

候才会有一定的用处。

  虽然无论是国外的考试还是国内的考试,我们中国人都总结了大量的考试技巧,但是

你在为这些高分技巧兴奋的同时,不要忘记,这不是你英语学习的最终目的。不要舍本逐

末,迷失了你的方向。

  正因为如此,所以不要认为学习英语要一定拿出特定的时间来,其实在我们的生活中

随时随地的都可以学习英语。例如,一个简单的问题,电子邮件的单词是否可以使用大写

字母来写?这个关于礼仪的问题BEC的课程也没有提到过。后来我在学习CIW网络安全课

程的时候才知道,在电子邮件里面把单词全部大写是不礼貌的,是表示你在向对方喊叫和

辱骂。作为普通人你也许可以不在意,但是作为黑客在进行技术问题讨论的时候则必须遵

守一些这方面的礼仪。

  目前市面上的英语学习的教材和方法有很多,选择哪个要看你要学习哪个方向。想学

口语可以选择李阳的《疯狂英语》,想练听写可以选择钟道隆的《逆向英语》。想学基础

英语就选《新概念》,想学生活英语就选《走遍美国》。不要企图通过一本教材就能学好

英语。也不要因为学了一个方面的英语而别的方面没有提高而泄气丧失信心。

  目前的英语培训学校有很多,也不要企图找某个学校上一个班就能把英语完全的学好

。不要以为花钱巨多的VIP课程就一定比普通的班效果好。关键在于你自己。

2003年夏天刚到北京的时候,到新东方总部去拿免费的排班表。拿着一本比《读者》还

厚的新东方招生简章,面对众多的排课表,一时很茫然,不知道应该报哪一个班,不知道

应该怎样安排我的英语学习计划。

  后来2003年暑期的新东方免费讲座和其它学校的一些讲座让我慢慢的总结出了规律。

希望对大家英语学习的报班有一定的参考。

  在报班之前首先要明确你的目的。一般可以分为三类,国外考试,国内考试,基础英

语。

  国外考试是指IELTSTOEFLGMATGRELAST等等考试的学习,这类班一般是

讲解考试技巧和模拟题的,不要奢求在这种班里面会提高你的英语基础。很多人误以为参

加了TOEFL班的学习,英语水平就可以上升到能在国外生活的TOEFL水平了。

  目前TOEFLGRE考试推荐在新东方学习,因为新东方在这个领域实战经验丰富。IE

LTSBEC推荐在环球雅思学习,因为环球雅思进行真题的讲解,BEC部分的课程由以前

的考官讲解,会告诉你评分标准,让你在准备考试的时候少走弯路。

国内考试指的是四六级,高自考,职称考试,研究生考试等等。也是考试技巧和考题预测

的课程,需要你提前自己把基础课程学好再来报这样的班。

  基础英语指的是新概念,走遍美国,听说翻译之类的班,这种班不对应考试,课程主

要是讲解词汇,短语,课文,语法,听力,口语,思维等等。新东方的4+1课程是值得推荐

的系统化的基础生活英语课程。戴尔英语的口语课程效果很好,但是分级太多价钱有些偏

高。好像每级2XXX元。华尔街的英语课程虽然有人向我推荐效果很好,但是价格更是高高

在上,好像在万元以上,针对的是月收入过万的CBD白领一族吧。不是普通学生所能承受

的起的。

  具体要到哪个学校报哪个班,还有很多不能形成文字明说的因素,所以在你下决定报

班之前,最好到相关学校的论坛上多转转,向同学多打听一下,你会获得更多实用的有价

值的信息。

  其实只要你掌握了本文总结的方法,充分利用身边的资源,完全可以少花钱,主要通

过自己自学好英语。这也是社会生存的技能之一。http://search.btchine.net这个页面上的B

T镜像网站上又很多你所需要的各方面的资料可以下载,当然也包扩英语学习资料软件和D

VDRip版本电影的下载。特别值得介绍一下的是,虽然满分网的BT网站下载的速度慢一些

。但是上面有英语学习资料,计算机学习资料,MBA学习资料等和其它各学科学习资料的

长期种子(http://www.manfen.net/forum/btsubsystem.php)。

  下载这些资料需要一个BT软件,中国人也叫它“变态”,实际上是英文"Bit Torrent"的缩

写。你可以按照这个关键字搜索官方的基本安装文件和第三方的下载工具,如果你是内网

的话,推荐使用BitComet,最新的版本是 0.52,我感觉这个软件使用比较方便,而且下载

速度比较快。

  什么是BT?这是一种新的P2P下载理念。就是有一个用户A把他要共享的文件做成种子

发布在网上让别人来下载。第一个连上的用户B下载以后,同时也要提供上传的任务,这样

第三个用户C就可以同时连上AB进行下载,依此类推,连接的用户越多,下载的速度就

越快。这是以前的下载方式所不能比拟的,以前的C/S下载方式,下载用户过多以后,服务

器就会瘫痪。

  后来随着软件的升级BT有了限速的功能,结果很多人下载不限速,上传却限速,导致

BT受到很多人的责难。现在的第三方软件虽然有限速,但一般在内部设置成上传速率和下

载速率是成正比的,如果你上传限速10K/,那么你下载最多也就10K/秒。所以,除非你不

喜欢高速的下载,否则请不要限速。另外,当你下载完以后不要立刻删除任务,希望你能

做一段时间的种子,让别人下载。这就是BT互惠互利的精神。

  如果BT上找不到你希望的资料,你可以参考一下附录,将有一个国内外英语学习的网

址大全,你应该能找到你所需要的一切英语学习的资料。

  随着社会和经济的发展,英语的生活环境将不可避免的伴随你的一生,如同你的呼吸

。只要你愿意,你就会从中获得更多的信息。获得更多的竞争力,让你的生活更加丰富多

彩。考试对你而言仅仅是一个task而已。这种良好的心态会让你慢慢的体会到英语环境的

美好,体会到一种思想超前的快感和年轻的心态,体会双语人生中的幸福。这种奇妙的感

觉,类比于新概念四册课文里罗素说的,”青春不只是你生命中的一段时期,而是你心中的

一种状态。

后记

  我自己也没有想到,这样的一篇文章会让我断断续续的写了六万多字,写了接近一年

。因为每个月我都发现以前听过的讲座中,有不正确的理论。所以总是在不断的修正中。

以前我看过很多英语学习已经有所成就的人写的关于英语学习方法的书,我怀疑其中某些

方法的可操作性,我怀疑他本人并没有这样的做过,而是为了写书或者讲座的条理性才添

加进去的,所以总想验证一下再下结论。

  2003年暑假到2004年上半年,我在北京学习了下列英语培训班,除了觉得美国英语班

的价钱和内容相比有些贵以外,其它的都觉得物有所值。

新东方新概念13册上午班(2003.72003.10

戴尔英语新概念4册晚班(2003.11)

新东方美国英语12下午班(2003.10-2003.11

刘仁十天突破雅思词汇晚班(2004.2

环球雅思BEC初级中级周末班(2004.2-2004.4

新东方GRE核心词汇晚班(2004.3-2004.4

  其实我学美国英语班主要是想上崔蕊的课,因为她和ADAM的公开课给我留下了很深可

的印象,原来英语也可以这样教!但是很遗憾我的时间表没有赶上她的课。另外想听的就是

BEC部的谢娇岳的课,据说这个MM的智商有120多,初中毕业的时候想学初级日语,结果

报了日语一级的班,她以为一级是最容易的。结果拼了一个月,就把最难的一级考过了。

  最后我想说,本文总结的方法适用于高中或大学生,而不是初学英语的中小学生。并

且,你现在看到的是一个英语还没通关的人写的关于英语学习的思考心得和听讲座的感悟

,理论上还不完善。或许过一段时间,随着我的进步,我又会觉得上面总结的某些东西有

不正确的地方。我会随时修正我得错误。如果你有好的方法论希望能不吝指教。希望我们

能一起努力,在学习的过程中,继续寻找最有效果的英语学习方法!本文参考新东方2003

年暑假讲座第5(刘军,谢娇岳),9(俞敏洪),11(胡敏),12(李辉),17(崔蕊,

ADAM),19(李庆龙),22(杜子华),24(陈勇,陆巍),25(范猛),30(熊莹,

何钢,张皓),31(江博),38(杜伟),40(王强),47(翁云凯)场讲座和下列讲座

的内容整理而成。

 

 我的英语学习经验笔记



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(一)前言

自从上英语论坛以来,我交到了许多学习英语的朋友.但据我观察,英语狂热者并不是很多.

当然其中也有许多和我一样热爱英语的同仁!可是我发现一个很严重的问题和恶性循环就

是英语差的越来越差,英语好的越来越好,就像贫富差距剧增一样!而其中的原因就是,

英语差的越来越讨厌英语,在讨厌的条件下对英语的兴趣更加是每况愈下!许多过了英语6

级的朋友水平也不敢恭维。因此我写下下面的话以供大家参考。

学英语就像政治一样首先要制度一下总纲和基本纲领。然后分步制度和确立路线方针政策

。总纲和基本纲领就是学英语的动力和目的!路线方针就是学习英语的方法,包括词汇,

语法,听力,口语,阅读,写作,翻译的方法。

在我们学习一样东西,首先我们要扪心自问“我们为什么要学习它,为什么要学习英语”如果

在你心中有那么一个声音“我是为了考试,我是逼迫的”那么好,下面的你都不用看了!因为

下面的内容不仅仅是为了考试的。本人个人认为考试确实测试水平的手段。但我们应该是

先为了学习而考试,而不是为了考试而学习。如果答案是肯定的“我喜欢英语”那么我相信我

所说的话一定会有所帮助的!

在过去实践学习一年中,我常常和一些英语学习者交流。他们有时候会问我“我英语不好,

糟透了”。那我首先会问“你想学好英语吗?那好,我问你,你能背下新概念4册吗?”很遗憾

的是,我得到的答案常常是“啊。。。”“我不行”“那太难了”。如果正在看此文的你,心中的

答案也是否定的,那么英语你就不用学了。我问这个问题。并不是说每个人都要背新概念

。而是从这可以看出一个人学习的毅力和决心。当别人总是问我“你能。。。。样吗?”的时

候,我会毫不犹豫地说“我行我一定能做到,等着看我的结果吧”因此我常常能够更快的找到

别人更有效的学习方法。因为我在心中肯定自己以后,马上就开始动手探索行动。

我常常对我父母说“我是风雨无阻,无坚不摧的,我要考哈佛大学的博士”。其实我知道没有

一个人能理解我的行为了。我的父母更不会理解我的话!他们总是认为我太狂妄自大。老

是说“你那是海市蜃楼”。诸如此类的话,我已经听别人说过无数遍了。他们老是说,还是脚

踏实地一些吧!虽然我不是幼稚无知到反击。但是我也在心中想“我的天啊,这人这么这样

啊”。我一直认为,我理想是伟大的,我一定能够学成英语,我一定要不断完善自我,其实

我并不是没有考虑到现实,而是想,不管我最后有没有达到目的地,但是当某个时候我回

首往事的时候,我可能会发现我已经迈上许多层台阶,如果当初没有这个理想,我可能还

在最底下。说不定我哪天就真的能够达到我的目标呢!我也并不是说一定要考哈佛,而是

作为一种鞭策自己的动力,给自己信心给自己鼓励。而且我发现那些不相信奇迹,相信“一

切都是命中注定”的人都是那些失意者。其实他们根本没有从自身原因考虑过,他们为什么

会失败?他们所谓的失败正是因为他们是信奉“命中注定”者,所以不去努力了,放弃了。而

真是他们这种妥协几注定他们一辈子必将失败,这就是一个恶性循环了,他们所谓的“命中

注定”的这个命恰恰是他们自己给自己的,而他们自己还茫然不知,混混沌沌。

学英语也是一样的道理,所以说错过了就不要再错下去了,而不错的要让自己更加完善。

学习贵在兴趣,首先一个人要清楚自己为什么学英语,我发现那些为了工作考试或者想从

英语方面得到什么实际利益的人,一般很难坚持到最后都放弃,比方我之所以能坚持,是

英语我本身学英语就觉得快乐,因为我从小就对远古对世界各民俗风物历史等等有着浓厚

的兴趣,所以英语正好就成为了一种桥梁,一把打开这扇大门的钥匙。

我为了学习英语身体受到了很大的摧残,我的听力下降很快,以前是用耳机伤害了听力,

听课都困难了,后来恢复了一点点没,但是现在听力分贝仍然丢失很严重的,所以只得改

用外放的。我和别人说话都必须使用助听器,但是我不后悔,我虽然有时候很伤心啊,因

为世态炎凉,人心不古,落井下石的人真的是太多了。但是我从来没有后悔过学习英语,

我喜欢有什么错,我还是会坚持下去。

所以说学英语首先必须有勇气,二是有毅力。然后就是英语环境,天分等等。其实说实话

,我不是个说空话的人,经过我观察,我发现语言天分好记忆力好和善于创造发掘的人如

果做出努力者同样的努力其效果远远要高于后者,这是没有办法改变的事实。

还有一个就是怎么样让自己常常雄心勃勃,我觉得近朱者赤,近墨者黑,要常常与英语学

习者结伴一起学习一起促进,这样你就会觉得,恩,我学英语是很有用的。

如果常常帮助别人,比如说,再向别人解说英语的时候,就会觉得,我真的很有用,我真

的很厉害哦,原来学英语是可以帮助这么多人,我是挺了不起的人的,这样我就会觉得信

心满满,一直帮助别人就会一直有信心而且如果在帮助别人的同时发现自己的不足,就要

翻找资料以查缺补漏。使自己感觉到自己的不足就为了不耽误别人也不耽误自己而更加努

力。

(二)听力口语

现在我来谈一谈听力,作为一名英语专业的学生,听力一度是我最头疼的问题。我也曾经

用过一些不错的方法,结果最后都是不了了之。我曾经用得最多的方法是《逆向法》和《

千万别学英语》。不过似乎《逆向法》对我来说收效并不是那么明显。显然比较花费经历

和时间。我感觉我比较适合《千万别学英语》的方法。

但是,在学习的过程中,我发现这两种方法本身就是有其缺陷的。我个人认为这两种方法

结合起来再根据每个学英语的朋友的本身情况的不同,因材施教,才能在最短的时间里取

得最大的成果。我已经结合这两种方法,定制一套适合我自己的学习方法,已经用了两个

月,显然效果要比纯用这其中的一种要好得多。我已经能够很自然的听标准英语了。错误

有时会有,但并不是很多。

现在我来结合这两种方法说一说我在此方面取得的成果。

我一开始选用的材料就是VOA标准英语的资料,我曾经听别人说,不经过学习慢速英语就

想在标准英语上取得效果是不可能的。可是我并没有采纳那位朋友的意见。因为我基础并

不差,只是听力没有达到我自己希望的水平罢了。我一开始就做了长期抗战的思想准备。

可是事实其实没有我们想象中那么难。不过我想这是因为我没有用纯《逆向法》的缘故。

我是先用了《千万别学英语》打通耳朵,然后再听写,我在听写的过程中是一边写一边跟

读模仿的。不过我想并不是每个朋友都能像我这样的。如果基础比较差的朋友建议使用比

较通俗一点的材料。像是比慢速英语速度快一些但又比标准英语慢一些的资料。像我以前

基础不好的时候就用过语速大约为120/1的短篇故事集(外声朗读)。1个月就取得了不小

的成果。最好不要用慢速英语,在我看来那有点浪费时间。因为人本来是可以接受正常语

速的。是可以适应的。如果用语速过慢的资料,我想以后再去接受正常语速的资料会很大

程度的困难,那又何不让自己更快的达到目标呢!有的去外国定居或是留学的朋友,也不

能要求他们周围的环境去适应他们,他们只能自己去适应他们周围的英语环境。不一样都

很好的度过了吗?在我看来像《逆向法》那样一个个去“抠”的话真的是一种不小的痛苦。如

果能先照〈千万别学英语〉介绍的方法那样,先听熟一盒磁带,先不要想他的意思。当你

能很自然的听下去,而且觉得可以适应语速,能听清楚95%的词的发音的时候,再开始听

写。那样真的要轻松得多了。至于〈千万别学英语〉是否真的需要经过5个阶段,那就看个

人志愿和自身情况了。不过〈千万别学英语〉的材料毕竟是适合有基础的朋友。基础比较

差的朋友在选材料上还是要比较慎重一些。因为毕竟时间最好不要浪费在没有效果没有意

义的事情上。

还有就是练听力的时间也很重要,对效果有很大的影响。如果泛听的话最好是选择在有一

点点睡意的时候听是最好不过的了。因为那样的话,那种英语意识就完全输入到你的大脑

潜意识里面去了。当你瞌睡的时候要控制头脑不要想睡觉的事情最好是注意耳边的语音。

所以说睡前泛听是效果最高的。或者是早晨刚起来的时候听也不错。因为睡意未退嘛~

本篇写于去年,当时由于时间紧急并没有经过修改所以存在一些缺陷,《千万法》的缺陷

并没有很具体的写进去,所以今天特地整理一下:

万法的缺陷就在于,前两个步骤作用之大相当惊人,而后面的效果就递减,而且要花费相

当长的时间,千万法里面推荐的增加词汇量和提高阅读能力已经口语的方法,不怎么好。

原因有几点:

1.用英英词典增加词汇量,没有8000词的基础,不要做这种无谓的尝试,因为比如有些专

业名词,并没有具体解释,只是用简单的最基础的3000----3500词做解释,比如某种花或

者树木草等,英语词典里面只解释其性质,比如什么形状生长在哪,什么颜色,这样不熟

悉的我们就会被搞得云里雾里不但会不能增加词汇量还会误解。另外解释一下,因为很多

著名的英英词典比如朗文,牛津的都将解释单词的基础词汇压缩在3500以下,所以我这里

才说有些词汇解释不能清楚明了。

2.还有就是阅读,千万法作者推荐看报纸,但是我发现报纸的专业词汇量超大,而却语法

相当难和复杂,没有经过长期的训练和很好的基础一张大报很难读完,因为科技文商业文

是比较难读的,而我们多半在学英语的时候都是接触的文学类性质的文章,所以建议训练

阅读科技文在阅读项目的最后一个项目。

3.作者说应该按照像播报员一样讲报纸内容自我演讲出来,这样是极其错误的,因为我们

还在学习英语阶段,很多朋友都没有真正受过觉得对纯正的语音训练,如果报纸内容没有

语音资料,很容易误入歧途,结果最后变成不伦不类的英语。

口语部分:

我本来口语是很差的,不过经过自我苦练正在不断提升中。我个人比较喜欢美语。因为美

语比英语口型起伏大得多,比较形象化,感觉比较轻松有趣!不如如果你想学习英英最好

从美到英音的转变。大家都知道学口语复读机绝对是必不可少的。我的方法也和普通方法

是一样的。就是疯狂模仿背咏,然后实践.我们这里没有什么英语角,很少。我能做的就是

,用复读机录下自己的声音。一般内容都是2个人对话,一个A一个B。先把A说的录下来。

然后复读机问。我答,做完几遍后在换过来.我问复读机答.还有一种就是背时文和演讲稿,

背时文的时候把自己当成新闻主播在镜子面前不断重复演练。背演讲稿的时候就真的融自

己的感情,把自己当成真的在演讲!不要太注重你所说的内容,而是要想你现在要某某人

或某些人表达什么!过一段时间后你会发觉你的英语越来越流利.也许这听起来有些可笑。

这是在没有语言环境下不得已的方法。不过真的有很神奇的效果!当然还有就是可以上网

上外语角!当你的英语打得比中文快。那么可以说你的英语口语水平已经有一定的程度了

!如果有英语角和英语环境当然是更好!网上练口语也是不错的选择。但是缺乏逼真性。

跟大家开个玩笑涂唇膏润润唇可以使我们说英语的时候不结巴,一溜烟的就说过了,因为

涂纯油很滑,这个绝对有效,电视里的播报员不是不怎么打结巴的?呵呵

 

 美国文学史笔记



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A Concise History of American Literature

What is literature?

Literature is language artistically used to achieve identifiable literary qualities and to

convey meaningful messages.

Chapter 1 Colonial Period

I.                   Background: Puritanism

1.         features of Puritanism

(1)      Predestination: God decided everything before things occurred.

(2)      Original sin: Human beings were born to be evil, and this original sin can be

passed down from generation to generation.

(3)      Total depravity

(4)      Limited atonement: Only the “elect” can be saved.

2.         Influence

(1)      A group of good qualities – hard work, thrift, piety, sobriety (serious and

thoughtful) influenced American literature.

(2)      It led to the everlasting myth. All literature is based on a myth – garden of Eden.

(3)      Symbolism: the American puritan’s metaphorical mode of perception was chiefly

instrumental in calling into being a literary symbolism which is distinctly American.

(4)      With regard to their writing, the style is fresh, simple and direct; the rhetoric is

plain and honest, not without a touch of nobility often traceable to the direct influence of

the Bible.

II.                Overview of the literature

1.         types of writing

diaries, histories, journals, letters, travel books, autobiographies/biographies, sermons

2.         writers of colonial period

(1)      Anne Bradstreet

(2)      Edward Taylor

(3)      Roger Williams

(4)      John Woolman

(5)      Thomas Paine

(6)      Philip Freneau

III.             Jonathan Edwards

1.         life

2.         works

(1)      The Freedom of the Will

(2)      The Great Doctrine of Original Sin Defended

(3)      The Nature of True Virtue

3.         ideas – pioneer of transcendentalism

(1)      The spirit of revivalism

(2)      Regeneration of man

(3)      God’s presence

(4)      Puritan idealism

IV.              Benjamin Franklin

1.         life

2.         works

(1)      Poor Richard’s Almanac

(2)      Autobiography

3.         contribution

(1)      He helped found the Pennsylvania Hospital and the American Philosophical

Society.

(2)      He was called “the new Prometheus who had stolen fire (electricity in this case)

from heaven”.

(3)      Everything seems to meet in this one man – “Jack of all trades”. Herman Melville

thus described him “master of each and mastered by none”.

Chapter 2 American Romanticism

Section 1 Early Romantic Period

What is Romanticism?

l         An approach from ancient Greek: Plato

l         A literary trend: 18c in Britain (1798~1832)

l         Schlegel Bros.

I.                   Preview: Characteristics of romanticism

1.         subjectivity

(1)      feeling and emotions, finding truth

(2)      emphasis on imagination

(3)      emphasis on individualism – personal freedom, no hero worship, natural

goodness of human beings

2.         back to medieval, esp medieval folk literature

(1)      unrestrained by classical rules

(2)      full of imagination

(3)      colloquial language

(4)      freedom of imagination

(5)      genuine in feelings: answer their call for classics

3.         back to nature

nature is “breathing living thing” (Rousseau)

II.                American Romanticism

1.         Background

(1)      Political background and economic development

(2)      Romantic movement in European countries

Derivative – foreign influence

2.         features

(1)      American romanticism was in essence the expression of “a real new experience

and contained “an alien quality” for the simple reason that “the spirit of the place” was

radically new and alien.

(2)      There is American Puritanism as a cultural heritage to consider. American

romantic authors tended more to moralize. Many American romantic writings intended to

edify more than they entertained.

(3)      The “newness” of Americans as a nation is in connection with American

Romanticism.

(4)      As a logical result of the foreign and native factors at work, American romanticism

was both imitative and independent.

III.             Washington Irving

1.         several names attached to Irving

(1)      first American writer

(2)      the messenger sent from the new world to the old world

(3)      father of American literature

2.         life

3.         works

(1)      A History of New York from the Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch

Dynasty

(2)      The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. (He won a measure of international

recognition with the publication of this.)

(3)      The History of the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus

(4)      A Chronicle of the Conquest of Granada

(5)      The Alhambra

4.         Literary career: two parts

(1)      1809~1832

a.       Subjects are either English or European

b.       Conservative love for the antique

(2)      1832~1859: back to US

5.         style – beautiful

(1)      gentility, urbanity, pleasantness

(2)      avoiding moralizing – amusing and entertaining

(3)      enveloping stories in an atmosphere

(4)      vivid and true characters

(5)      humour – smiling while reading

(6)      musical language

IV.              James Fenimore Cooper

1.         life

2.         works

(1)      Precaution (1820, his first novel, imitating Austen’s Pride and Prejudice)

(2)      The Spy (his second novel and great success)

(3)      Leatherstocking Tales (his masterpiece, a series of five novels)

The Deerslayer, The Last of the Mohicans, The Pathfinder, The Pioneer, The Prairie

3.         point of view

the theme of wilderness vs. civilization, freedom vs. law, order vs. change, aristocrat vs.

democrat, natural rights vs. legal rights

4.         style

(1)      highly imaginative

(2)      good at inventing tales

(3)      good at landscape description

(4)      conservative

(5)      characterization wooden and lacking in probability

(6)      language and use of dialect not authentic

5.         literary achievements

He created a myth about the formative period of the American nation. If the history of the

United States is, in a sense, the process of the American settlers exploring and pushing

the American frontier forever westward, then Cooper’s Leatherstocking Tales effectively

approximates the American national experience of adventure into the West. He turned

the west and frontier as a useable past and he helped to introduce western tradition to

American literature.

Section 2 Summit of Romanticism – American Transcendentalism

I.                   Background: four sources

1.         Unitarianism

(1)      Fatherhood of God

(2)      Brotherhood of men

(3)      Leadership of Jesus

(4)      Salvation by character (perfection of one’s character)

(5)      Continued progress of mankind

(6)      Divinity of mankind

(7)      Depravity of mankind

2.         Romantic Idealism

Center of the world is spirit, absolute spirit (Kant)

3.         Oriental mysticism

Center of the world is “oversoul”

4.         Puritanism

Eloquent expression in transcendentalism

II.                Appearance

1836, “Nature” by Emerson

III.             Features

1.         spirit/oversoul

2.         importance of individualism

3.         nature – symbol of spirit/God

garment of the oversoul

4.         focus in intuition (irrationalism and subconsciousness)

IV.              Influence

1.         It served as an ethical guide to life for a young nation and brought about the

idea that human can be perfected by nature. It stressed religious tolerance, called to

throw off shackles of customs and traditions and go forward to the development of a new

and distinctly American culture.

2.         It advocated idealism that was great needed in a rapidly expanded economy

where opportunity often became opportunism, and the desire to “get on” obscured the

moral necessity for rising to spiritual height.

3.         It helped to create the first American renaissance – one of the most prolific

period in American literature.

V.                 Ralph Waldo Emerson

1.         life

2.         works

(1)      Nature

(2)      Two essays: The American Scholar, The Poet

3.         point of view

(1)      One major element of his philosophy is his firm belief in the transcendence of the

oversoul”.

(2)      He regards nature as the purest, and the most sanctifying moral influence on

man, and advocated a direct intuition of a spiritual and immanent God in nature.

(3)      If man depends upon himself, cultivates himself and brings out the divine in

himself, he can hope to become better and even perfect. This is what Emerson means

by “the infinitude of man”.

(4)      Everyone should understand that he makes himself by making his world, and that

he makes the world by making himself.

4.         aesthetic ideas

(1)      He is a complete man, an eternal man.

(2)      True poetry and true art should ennoble.

(3)      The poet should express his thought in symbols.

(4)      As to theme, Emerson called upon American authors to celebrate America which

was to him a lone poem in itself.

5.         his influence

VI.              Henry David Thoreau

1.         life

2.         works

(1)      A Week on the Concord and Merrimack River

(2)      Walden

(3)      A Plea for John Brown (an essay)

3.         point of view

(1)      He did not like the way a materialistic America was developing and was

vehemently outspoken on the point.

(2)      He hated the human injustice as represented by the slavery system.

(3)      Like Emerson, but more than him, Thoreau saw nature as a genuine restorative,

healthy influence on man’s spiritual well-being.

(4)      He has faith in the inner virtue and inward, spiritual grace of man.

(5)      He was very critical of modern civilization.

(6)      “Simplicity…simplify!”

(7)      He was sorely disgusted with “the inundations of the dirty institutions of men’s

odd-fellow society”.

(8)      He has calm trust in the future and his ardent belief in a new generation of men.

Section 3 Late Romanticism

I.                   Nathaniel Hawthorne

1.         life

2.         works

(1)      Two collections of short stories: Twice-told Tales, Mosses from and Old Manse

(2)      The Scarlet Letter

(3)      The House of the Seven Gables

(4)      The Marble Faun

3.         point of view

(1)      Evil is at the core of human life, “that blackness in Hawthorne”

(2)      Whenever there is sin, there is punishment. Sin or evil can be passed from

generation to generation (causality).

(3)      He is of the opinion that evil educates.

(4)      He has disgust in science.

4.         aesthetic ideas

(1)      He took a great interest in history and antiquity. To him these furnish the soil on

which his mind grows to fruition.

(2)      He was convinced that romance was the predestined form of American narrative.

To tell the truth and satirize and yet not to offend: That was what Hawthorne had in mind

to achieve.

5.         style – typical romantic writer

(1)      the use of symbols

(2)      revelation of characters’ psychology

(3)      the use of supernatural mixed with the actual

(4)      his stories are parable (parable inform) – to teach a lesson

(5)      use of ambiguity to keep the reader in the world of uncertainty – multiple point of

view

II.                Herman Melville

1.         life

2.         works

(1)      Typee

(2)      Omio

(3)      Mardi

(4)      Redburn

(5)      White Jacket

(6)      Moby Dick

(7)      Pierre

(8)      Billy Budd

3.         point of view

(1)      He never seems able to say an affirmative yes to life: His is the attitude of

Everlasting Nay” (negative attitude towards life).

(2)      One of the major themes of his is alienation (far away from each other).

Other themes: loneliness, suicidal individualism (individualism causing disaster and

death), rejection and quest, confrontation of innocence and evil, doubts over the

comforting 19c idea of progress

4.         style

(1)      Like Hawthorne, Melville manages to achieve the effect of ambiguity through

employing the technique of multiple view of his narratives.

(2)      He tends to write periodic chapters.

(3)      His rich rhythmical prose and his poetic power have been profusely commented

upon and praised.

(4)      His works are symbolic and metaphorical.

(5)      He includes many non-narrative chapters of factual background or description of

what goes on board the ship or on the route (Moby Dick)

Romantic Poets

I.                   Walt Whitman

1.         life

2.         work: Leaves of Grass (9 editions)

(1)      Song of Myself

(2)      There Was a Child Went Forth

(3)      Crossing Brooklyn Ferry

(4)      Democratic Vistas

(5)      Passage to India

(6)      Out of the Cradle Endlessly Rocking

3.         themes – “Catalogue of American and European thought”

He had been influenced by many American and European thoughts: enlightenment,

idealism, transcendentalism, science, evolution ideas, western frontier spirits, Jefferson’s

individualism, Civil War Unionism, Orientalism.

Major themes in his poems (almost everything):

l         equality of things and beings

l         divinity of everything

l         immanence of God

l         democracy

l         evolution of cosmos

l         multiplicity of nature

l         self-reliant spirit

l         death, beauty of death

l         expansion of America

l         brotherhood and social solidarity (unity of nations in the world)

l         pursuit of love and happiness

4.         style: “free verse”

(1)      no fixed rhyme or scheme

(2)      parallelism, a rhythm of thought

(3)      phonetic recurrence

(4)      the habit of using snapshots

(5)      the use of a certain pronoun “I”

(6)      a looser and more open-ended syntactic structure

(7)      use of conventional image

(8)      strong tendency to use oral English

(9)      vocabulary – powerful, colourful, rarely used words of foreign origins, some even

wrong

(10)  sentences – catalogue technique: long list of names, long poem lines

5.         influence

(1)      His best work has become part of the common property of Western culture.

(2)      He took over Whitman’s vision of the poet-prophet and poet-teacher and recast it

in a more sophisticated and Europeanized mood.

(3)      He has been compared to a mountain in American literary history.

(4)      Contemporary American poetry, whatever school or form, bears witness to his

great influence.

II.                Emily Dickenson

1.         life

2.         works

(1)      My Life Closed Twice before Its Close

(2)      Because I Can’t Stop for Death

(3)      I Heard a Fly Buzz – When I died

(4)      Mine – by the Right of the White Election

(5)      Wild Nights – Wild Nights

3.         themes: based on her own experiences/joys/sorrows

(1)      religion – doubt and belief about religious subjects

(2)      death and immortality

(3)      love – suffering and frustration caused by love

(4)      physical aspect of desire

(5)      nature – kind and cruel

(6)      free will and human responsibility

4.         style

(1)      poems without titles

(2)      severe economy of expression

(3)      directness, brevity

(4)      musical device to create cadence (rhythm)

(5)      capital letters – emphasis

(6)      short poems, mainly two stanzas

(7)      rhetoric techniques: personification – make some of abstract ideas vivid

III.             Comparison: Whitman vs. Dickinson

1.         Similarities:

(1)      Thematically, they both extolled, in their different ways, an emergent America, its

expansion, its individualism and its Americanness, their poetry being part of “American

Renaissance”.

(2)      Technically, they both added to the literary independence of the new nation by

breaking free of the convention of the iambic pentameter and exhibiting a freedom in

form unknown before: they were pioneers in American poetry.

2.         differences:

(1)      Whitman seems to keep his eye on society at large; Dickinson explores the inner

life of the individual.

(2)      Whereas Whitman is “national” in his outlook, Dickinson is “regional”.

(3)      Dickinson has the “catalogue technique” (direct, simple style) which Whitman

doesn’t have.

Edgar Allen Poe

I.                   Life

II.                Works

1.         short stories

(1)      ratiocinative stories

a.       Ms Found in a Bottle

b.       The Murders in the Rue Morgue

c.       The Purloined Letter

(2)      Revenge, death and rebirth

a.       The Fall of the House of Usher

b.       Ligeia

c.       The Masque of the Red Death

(3)      Literary theory

a.       The Philosophy of Composition

b.       The Poetic Principle

c.       Review of Hawthorne’s Twice-told Tales

III.             Themes

1.         death – predominant theme in Poe’s writing

Poe is not interested in anything alive. Everything in Poe’s writings is dead.”

2.         disintegration (separation) of life

3.         horror

4.         negative thoughts of science

IV.              Aesthetic ideas

1.         The short stories should be of brevity, totality, single effect, compression and

finality.

2.         The poems should be short, and the aim should be beauty, the tone melancholy.

Poems should not be of moralizing. He calls for pure poetry and stresses rhythm.

V.                 Style – traditional, but not easy to read

VI.              Reputation: “the jingle man” (Emerson)

VII.           His influences

Chapter 3 The Age of Realism

I.                   Background: From Romanticism to Realism

1.         the three conflicts that reached breaking point in this period

(1)      industrialism vs. agrarian

(2)      culturely-measured east vs. newly-developed west

(3)      plantation gentility vs. commercial gentility

2.         1880’s urbanization: from free competition to monopoly capitalism

3.         the closing of American frontier

II.                Characteristics

1.         truthful description of life

2.         typical character under typical circumstance

3.         objective rather than idealized, close observation and investigation of life

Realistic writers are like scientists.”

4.         open-ending:

Life is complex and cannot be fully understood. It leaves much room for readers to think

by themselves.

5.         concerned with social and psychological problems, revealing the frustrations of

characters in an environment of sordidness and depravity

III.             Three Giants in Realistic Period

1.         William Dean Howells – “Dean of American Realism”

(1)      Realistic principles

a.       Realism is “fidelity to experience and probability of motive”.

b.       The aim is “talk of some ordinary traits of American life”.

c.       Man in his natural and unaffected dullness was the object of Howells’s fictional

representation.

d.       Realism is by no means mere photographic pictures of externals but includes a

central concern with “motives” and psychological conflicts.

e.       He condemns novels of sentimentality and morbid self-sacrifice, and avoids such

themes as illicit love.

f.        Authors should minimize plot and the artificial ordering of the sense of something “

desultory, unfinished, imperfect”.

g.       Characters should have solidity of specification and be real.

h.       Interpreting sympathetically the “common feelings of commonplace people” was

best suited as a technique to express the spirit of America.

i.         He urged writers to winnow tradition and write in keeping with current

humanitarian ideals.

j.         Truth is the highest beauty, but it includes the view that morality penetrates all

things.

k.       With regard to literary criticism, Howells felt that the literary critic should not try to

impose arbitrary or subjective evaluations on books but should follow the detached

scientist in accurate description, interpretation, and classification.

(2)      Works

a.       The Rise of Silas Lapham

b.       A Chance Acquaintance

c.       A Modern Instance

(3)      Features of His Works

a.       Optimistic tone

b.       Moral development/ethics

c.       Lacking of psychological depth

2.         Henry James

(1)      Life

(2)      Literary career: three stages

a.       1865~1882: international theme

l   The American

l   Daisy Miller

l   The Portrait of a Lady

b.       1882~1895: inter-personal relationships and some plays

l   Daisy Miller (play)

c.       1895~1900: novellas and tales dealing with childhood and adolescence, then

back to international theme

l   The Turn of the Screw

l   When Maisie Knew

l   The Ambassadors

l   The Wings of the Dove

l   The Golden Bowl

(3)      Aesthetic ideas

a.       The aim of novel: represent life

b.       Common, even ugly side of life

c.       Social function of art

d.       Avoiding omniscient point of view

(4)      Point of view

a.       Psychological analysis, forefather of stream of consciousness

b.       Psychological realism

c.       Highly-refined language

(5)      Style – “stylist”

a.       Language: highly-refined, polished, insightful, accurate

b.       Vocabulary: large

c.       Construction: complicated, intricate

3.         Mark Twain (see next section)

Local Colorism

1860s, 1870s~1890s

I.                   Appearance

1.         uneven development in economy in America

2.         culture: flourishing of frontier literature, humourists

3.         magazines appeared to let writer publish their works

II.                What is “Local Colour”?

Tasks of local colourists: to write or present local characters of their regions in truthful

depiction distinguished from others, usually a very small part of the world.

Regional literature (similar, but larger in world)

l         Garland, Harte – the west

l         Eggleston – Indiana

l         Mrs Stowe

l         Jewett – Maine

l         Chopin – Louisiana

III.             Mark Twain – Mississippi

1.         life

2.         works

(1)      The Gilded Age

(2)      “the two advantages”

(3)      Life on the Mississippi

(4)      A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court

(5)      The Man That Corrupted Hardleybug

3.         style

(1)      colloquial language, vernacular language, dialects

(2)      local colour

(3)      syntactic feature: sentences are simple, brief, sometimes ungrammatical

(4)      humour

(5)      tall tales (highly exaggerated)

(6)      social criticism (satire on the different ugly things in society)

IV.              Comparison of the three “giants” of American Realism

1.         Theme

Howells – middle class

James – upper class

Twain – lower class

2.         Technique

Howells – smiling/genteel realism

James – psychological realism

Twain – local colourism and colloquialism

Chapter 4 American Naturalism

I.                   Background

1.         Darwin’s theory: “natural selection”

2.         Spenser’s idea: “social Darwinism”

3.         French Naturalism: Zora

II.                Features

1.         environment and heredity

2.         scientific accuracy and a lot of details

3.         general tone: hopelessness, despair, gloom, ugly side of the society

III.             significance

It prepares the way for the writing of 1920s’ “lost generation” and T. S. Eliot.

IV.              Theodore Dreiser

1.         life

2.         works

(1)      Sister Carrie

(2)      The trilogy: Financier, The Titan, The Stoic

(3)      Jennie Gerhardt

(4)      American Tragedy

(5)      The Genius

3.         point of view

(1)      He embraced social Darwinism – survival of the fittest. He learned to regard man

as merely an animal driven by greed and lust in a struggle for existence in which only the

fittest”, the most ruthless, survive.

(2)      Life is predatory, a “game” of the lecherous and heartless, a jungle struggle in

which man, being “a waif and an interloper in Nature”, a “wisp in the wind of social forces

, is a mere pawn in the general scheme of things, with no power whatever to assert his

will.

(3)      No one is ethically free; everything is determined by a complex of internal

chemisms and by the forces of social pressure.

4.         Sister Carrie

(1)      Plot

(2)      Analysis

5.         Style

(1)      Without good structure

(2)      Deficient characterization

(3)      Lack in imagination

(4)      Journalistic method

(5)      Techniques in painting

Chapter 5 The Modern Period

Section 1 The 1920s

I.                   Introduction

The 1920s is a flowering period of American literature. It is considered “the second

renaissance” of American literature.

The nicknames for this period:

(1)      Roaring 20s – comfort

(2)      Dollar Decade – rich

(3)      Jazz Age – Jazz music

II.                Background

1.         First World War – “a war to end all wars”

(1)      Economically: became rich from WWI. Economic boom: new inventions.

Highly-consuming society.

(2)      Spiritually: dislocation, fragmentation.

2.         wide-spread contempt for law (looking down upon law)

3.         Freud’s theory

III.             Features of the literature

Writers: three groups

(1)      Participants

(2)      Expatriates

(3)      Bohemian (unconventional way of life) – on-lookers

Two areas:

(1)      Failure of communication of Americans

(2)      Failure of the American society

Imagism

I.                      Background

            Imagism was influenced by French symbolism, ancient Chinese poetry and

Japanese literature “haiku”

II.                    Development: three stages

1.         1908~1909: London, Hulme

2.         1912~1914: England -> America, Pound

3.         1914~1917: Amy Lowell

III.       What is an “image”?

            An image is defined by Pound as that which presents an intellectual and

emotional complex in an instant of time, “a vortex or cluster of fused ideas” “endowed

with energy”. The exact word must bring the effect of the object before the reader as it

had presented itself to the poet’s mind at the time of writing.

IV.                    Principles

1.         Direct treatment of the “thing”, whether subjective or objective;

2.         To use absolutely no word that does not contribute to the presentation;

3.         As regarding rhythm, to compose in the sequence of the musical phrase, not in

the sequence of a metronome.

V.                     Significance

1.         It was a rebellion against the traditional poetics which failed to reflect the new life

of the new century.

2.         It offered a new way of writing which was valid not only for the Imagist poets but

for modern poetry as a whole.

3.         The movement was a training school in which many great poets learned their first

lessons in the poetic art.

4.         It is this movement that helped to open the first pages of modern English and

American poetry.

VI.       Ezra Pound

1.         life

2.         literary career

3.         works

(1)      Cathay

(2)      Cantos

(3)      Hugh Selwyn Mauberley

4.         point of view

(1)      Confident in Pound’s belief that the artist was morally and culturally the arbiter

and the “saviour” of the race, he took it upon himself to purify the arts and became the

prime mover of a few experimental movements, the aim of which was to dump the old into

the dustbin and bring forth something new.

(2)      To him life was sordid personal crushing oppression, and culture produced

nothing but “intangible bondage”.

(3)      Pound sees in Chinese history and the doctrine of Confucius a source of strength

and wisdom with which to counterpoint Western gloom and confusion.

(4)      He saw a chaotic world that wanted setting to rights, and a humanity, suffering

from spiritual death and cosmic injustice, that needed saving. He was for the most part of

his life trying to offer Confucian philosophy as the one faith which could help to save the

West.

5.         style: very difficult to read

Pound’s early poems are fresh and lyrical. The Cantos can be notoriously difficult in

some sections, but delightfully beautiful in others. Few have made serious study of the

long poem; fewer, if anyone at all, have had the courage to declare that they have

conquered Pound; and many seem to agree that the Cantos is a monumental failure.

6.         Contribution

He has helped, through theory and practice, to chart out the course of modern poetry.

7.         The Cantos – “the intellectual diary since 1915”

Features:

(1)      Language: intricate and obscure

(2)      Theme: complex subject matters

(3)      Form: no fixed framework, no central theme, no attention to poetic rules

VII.      T. S. Eliot

1.         life

2.         works

(1)      poems

l The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock

l The Waste Land (epic)

l Hollow Man

l Ash Wednesday

l Four Quarters

(2)      Plays

l Murder in the Cathedral

l Sweeney Agonistes

l The Cocktail Party

l The Confidential Clerk

(3)      Critical essays

l The Sacred Wood

l Essays on Style and Order

l Elizabethan Essays

l The Use of Poetry and The Use of Criticisms

l After Strange Gods

3.         point of view

(1)      The modern society is futile and chaotic.

(2)      Only poets can create some order out of chaos.

(3)      The method to use is to compare the past and the present.

4.         Style

(1)      Fresh visual imagery, flexible tone and highly expressive rhythm

(2)      Difficult and disconnected images and symbols, quotations and allusions

(3)      Elliptical structures, strange juxtapositions, an absence of bridges

5.         The Waste Land: five parts

(1)      The Burial of the Dead

(2)      A Game of Chess

(3)      The Fire Sermon

(4)      Death by Water

(5)      What the Thunder Said

VIII.    Robert Frost

1.         life

2.         point of view

(1)      All his life, Frost was concerned with constructions through poetry. “a momentary

stay against confusion”.

(2)      He understands the terror and tragedy in nature, but also its beauty.

(3)      Unlike the English romantic poets of 19th century, he didn’t believe that man

could find harmony with nature. He believed that serenity came from working, usually

amid natural forces, which couldn’t be understood. He regarded work as “significant toil”.

3.         works – poems

the first: A Boy’s Will

collections: North of Boston, Mountain Interval (mature), New Hampshire

4.         style/features of his poems

(1)      Most of his poems took New England as setting, and the subjects were chosen

from daily life of ordinary people, such as “mending wall”, “picking apples”.

(2)      He writes most often about landscape and people – the loneliness and poverty of

isolated farmers, beauty, terror and tragedy in nature. He also describes some abnormal

people, e.g. “deceptively simple”, “philosophical poet”.

(3)      Although he was popular during 1920s, he didn’t experiment like other modern

poets. He used conventional forms, plain language, traditional metre, and wrote in a

pastured tradition.

IX.       e. e. cummings

            “a juggler with syntax, grammar and diction” – individualism, “painter poet”

Novels in the 1920s

I.                   F. Scott Fitzgerald

1.         life – participant in 1920s

2.         works

(1)      This Side of Paradise

(2)      Flappers and Philosophers

(3)      The Beautiful and the Damned

(4)      The Great Gatsby

(5)      Tender is the Night

(6)      All the Sad Young Man

(7)      The Last Tycoon

3.         point of view

(1)      He expressed what the young people believed in the 1920s, the so-called

American Dream” is false in nature.

(2)      He had always been critical of the rich and tried to show the integrating effects of

money on the emotional make-up of his character. He found that wealth altered people’s

characters, making them mean and distrusted. He thinks money brought only tragedy

and remorse.

(3)      His novels follow a pattern: dream – lack of attraction – failure and despair.

4.         His ideas of “American Dream”

It is false to most young people. Only those who were dishonest could become rich.

5.         Style

Fitzgerald was one of the great stylists in American literature. His prose is smooth,

sensitive, and completely original in its diction and metaphors. Its simplicity and

gracefulness, its skill in manipulating the relation between the general and the specific

reveal his consummate artistry.

6.         The Great Gatsby

Narrative point of view – Nick

He is related to everyone in the novel and is calm and detected observer who is never

quick to make judgements.

Selected omniscient point of view

II.                Ernest Hemingway

1.         life

2.         point of view (influenced by experience in war)

(1)      He felt that WWI had broken America’s culture and traditions, and separated from

its roots. He wrote about men and women who were isolated from tradition, frightened,

sometimes ridiculous, trying to find their own way.

(2)      He condemned war as purposeless slaughter, but the attitude changed when he

took part in Spanish Civil War when he found that fascism was a cause worth fighting for.

(3)      He wrote about courage and cowardice in battlefield. He defined courage as “an

instinctive movement towards or away from the centre of violence with self-preservation

and self-respect, the mixed motive”. He also talked about the courage with which to face

tragedies of life that can never be remedied.

(4)      Hemingway is essentially a negative writer. It is very difficult for him to say “yes”.

He holds a black, naturalistic view of the world and sees it as “all a nothing” and “all

nada”.

3.         works

(1)      In Our Time

(2)      Men Without Women

(3)      Winner Take Nothing

(4)      The Torrents of Spring

(5)      The Sun Also Rises

(6)      A Farewell to Arms

(7)      Death in the Afternoon

(8)      To Have and Have Not

(9)      Green Hills of Africa

(10)  The Fifth Column

(11)  For Whom the Bell Tolls

(12)  Across the River and into the Trees

(13)  The Old Man and the Sea

4.         themes – “grace under pressure”

(1)      war and influence of war on people, with scenes connected with hunting, bull

fighting which demand stamina and courage, and with the question “how to live with pain

, “how human being live gracefully under pressure”.

(2)      “code hero”

The Hemingway hero is an average man of decidedly masculine tastes, sensitive and

intelligent, a man of action, and one of few words. That is an individualist keeping

emotions under control, stoic and self-disciplined in a dreadful place. These people are

usually spiritual strong, people of certain skills, and most of them encounter death many

times.

5.         style

(1)      simple and natural

(2)      direct, clear and fresh

(3)      lean and economical

(4)      simple, conversational, common found, fundamental words

(5)      simple sentences

(6)      Iceberg principle: understatement, implied things

(7)      Symbolism

III.             Sinclair Lewis – “the worst important writer in American literature”

1.         life

2.         works

(1)      Main Street

(2)      Babbitt

(3)      Arrowsmith

(4)      Dodsworth

(5)      Elmer Gantry

3.         point of view – satirical critic of American middle class

(1)      Lewis showed the villagers to be narrow-minded, greedy, pretentious and corrupt.

(2)      He attacked middle class for its indifference to art and culture, and its assumption

that economic success made it superior.

4.         style

(1)      photographic, verisimilitude

(2)      colloquialism

(3)      characterization: he often created a type of character rather than an individual

(4)      old fashioned in theme

(5)      lack in psychological exploration

IV.              Willa Cather

1.         life

2.         works

(1)      Alexander’s Bridge

(2)      O Pioneers

(3)      The Song of the Lark

(4)      My Antonia

3.         features of her works

(1)      She was one of the few “uneasy survivors of the nineteenth century”. Hanging

onto the traditional values, she was never able to come to terms with modernity.

(2)      Old west becomes in most of her novels the centre of moral reference against

which modern existence is measured.

(3)      She withdraws in her later fiction into the historical past.

(4)      She often uses women protagonists in her novels.

Southern Literature

I.                   Heritage

American southern literature can date back to Edgar Allen Poe, and reach its summit

with the appearance of the two “giants” – Faulkner and Wolfe. There are southern

women writers – Katherine Anne Porter, Eudora Welty, and Flannery O’Connor.

 

II.                Southern Myths – guilt, failure, poverty

1.         Chevalier heritage

2.         Agrarian virtue

3.         Plantation aristocracy

4.         Lost cause

5.         White supremacy

6.         Purity of womanhood

Southern literature: twisted, pessimistic, violent, distorted

Gothic novel: Poe

III.             William Faulkner

1.         life

2.         literary career: three stages

(1)      1924~1929: training as a writer

l The Marble Faun

l Soldier’s Pay

l Mosquitoes

(2)      1929~1936: most productive and prolific period

l Sartoris

l The Sound and the Fury

l As I Lay Dying

l Light in August

l Absalom, Absalom

(3)      1940~end: won recognition in America

l Go Down, Moses

3.         point of view

He generally shows a grim picture of human society where violence and cruelty are

frequently included, but his later works showed more optimism. His intention was to show

the evil, harsh events in contrast to such eternal virtues as love, honour, pity,

compassion, self-sacrifice, and thereby expose the faults of society. He felt that it was a

writer’s duty to remind his readers constantly of true values and virtues.

4.         themes

(1)      history and race

He explains the present by examining the past, by telling the stories of several

generations of family to show how history changes life. He was interested in the

relationship between blacks and whites, especially concerned about the problems of the

people who were of the mixed race of black and white, unacceptable to both races.

(2)      Deterioration

(3)      Conflicts between generations, classes, races, man and environment

(4)      Horror, violence and the abnormal

5.         style/features of his works

(1)      complex plot

(2)      stream of consciousness

(3)      multiple point of view, circular form

(4)      violation of chronology

(5)      courtroom rhetoric: formal language

(6)      characterization: he was able to probe into the psychology of characters

(7)      “anti-hero”: weak, fable, vulnerable (true people in modern society)

He has a group of women writers following him, including O’Connor and Eudora Welty

Section 2 The 1930s

Radical 1930s

I.                   Background

Great Depression (1929 “Black Thursday”)

II.                Literature

1.         Writers of the 1920s were still writing, but they didn’t produce good works.

2.         The main stream is left-oriented.

III.             Writers of 1930s

1.         social concern and social involvement

2.         revival of naturalistic tradition of Dreiser and Norris

IV.              John Steinbeck

1.         life

2.         works

(1)      Cup of Gold

(2)      Tortilla Flat

(3)      In Dubious Battle

(4)      Of Mice and Men

(5)      The Grapes of Wrath

(6)      Travels with Charley

(7)      Short stories: The Red Pony, The Pearl

3.         point of view

(1)      His best writing was produced out of outrage at the injustices of the societies, and

by the admirations for the strong spirit of the poor.

(2)      His theme was usually simple human virtues, such as kindness and fair treatment,

which were far superior to the dehumanizing cruelty of exploiters.

4.         style

(1)      poetic prose

(2)      regional dialect

(3)      characterization: many types of characters rather than individuals

(4)      dramatic factors

(5)      social protect: spokesman for the poverty-stricken people

5.         The Grapes of Wrath

Chapter 6 The Post-War Period: 50s & 60s

I.                   Historical Background – multi-faceted

1.         Cold War

2.         McCarthyism (persecution of communists)

3.         Korean War

4.         Civil Rights Movement

5.         Counter-culture Movement – political, economical and military achievement

II.                Literature in the 1950s

1.         Regional literature emerged from the south, etc. Many women writers appeared.

2.         Dramatists wrote about everyday people, e.g. Arthur Miller.

3.         Minority literature developed quickly.

III.             Literature in the 1960s

This period is the rising period of post-modern literature. Many forms of post-modern

fiction appeared, such as metafiction, surfiction, parafiction, self-reflexive fiction,

self-begetting fiction, anti-novel, etc. The literature in this period is considered as

multi-cultural” literature. The same mood in this period is despair, but continuing to

search absurdity of modern life; lonely, but searching for the meaning of existence;

identity.

Section 1 Poetry

I.                   Features

1.         Some poets found inspiration in the past.

2.         Poetry became more attuned to political and social issues of the period.

3.         Poets became more visible in American public life.

4.         There was no prescribed form for poetry.

5.         Poets became more political. Themes such as homosexuality, racism, etc. are

included in the poems. In 1960s, poetry became more and more political.

II.                Schools of Poetry (time, representatives, major features)

1.         Confessional Poets: Robert Lowell

The greatness of Lowell lies in the fact that, in talking candidly about himself, he is

examining the culture of his nation. The identification of personal experience with that of

an age has always ensured greatness and even immortality as it did.

2.         Black Mountain Poets: Charles Olson

There is an emphasis on the importance of the moments of awareness. It portrays a

world of “awakened, contemplative awareness”, one in which civilization appears alien,

cold, and almost unreal.

3.         Beat Generation: Alien Ginsberg

In the fifties, there was a widespread discontentment among the post-war generation,

whose voice was one of protest against all the mainstream culture America had come to

represent.

Section 2 Fiction

I.                   General Features

1.         matter of fact

2.         frank, amazingly detailed about war experiences

3.         lacking social consciousness

II.                Overview

1.         Post-war Realism: Cheever, Oates

2.         Black Novel: Richard Wlight, Ralph Ellison, James Baldwin, Malcolm, Leroi Jones

3.         Jewish Novel: Saul Bellow

III.             Post-War Realism

1.         Features

(1)      Naturalistic depiction has become explicit: old-fashioned realism is combined with

modernism.

(2)      While following the realistic and naturalistic tradition, these writers borrowed

various experimental forms and techniques in probing the inner world in detail.

(3)      It has been a search for a way to connect an oppressed response to society and

history and an awareness of individual loneliness.

2.         J. D. Salinger

(1)      Life

(2)      Point of view

One of his frequent themes is young people longing for simplicity and truth instead of

complexity and hypocrisy of the life they observed around them. In his novels, he

questions the moral foundations of society and often places innocent idealist characters

in setting where a vicious, corrupt society could destroy them. Although his stories are

often pessimistic, the characters represent hope rather than despair. They want to affirm

truth. They deplore the lies with which the society conceals its own corruption. They

withdraw the society, become drop-outs rather than participants in the society.

(3)      Catcher in the Rye

IV.              Black Humour

1.         definition: to deal with tragic things in comic ways to make it more powerful and

more tragic.

It refers to the use of morbid and absurd for darkly comic purpose. It carries the tone of

anger, bitterness in the grotesque situation of suffering, anxiety, and death. It makes the

reader laugh at the blackness of modern life. The writers usually do not laugh at the

characters.

2.         Features

(1)      Comic way to express tragic situations

(2)      Creation of anti-hero

(3)      Illogical narrative structure

3.         Joseph Heller

(1)      Life

(2)      Catch-22

It is not only a war novel, but also a novel about people’s life in peaceful time. This novel

attacked the dehumanization of all contemporary institutions and corruptions of

individuals who gain power in institutions. Armed-forces are the most outrageous

example of the two evils.

Language: circular conversation, wrenched cliché

Jewish Literature

I.                   Definition

Jewish literature refers to published creative writings by American Jews about their

American experiences. This kind of writings is shown in Jewish perspective.

II.                Historical Background

III.             Emergence: after WWII

IV.              Jewish Point of View

1.         Jews believe that God has sent perpetual sufferings to his chosen people to

strengthen and purify them, and they are the “chosen people”.

2.         Humour is a prominent aspect of Jewish point of view. It is often a twisted kind of

comedy to keep them from despair. Jews are able to laugh at themselves, so some of

their best humour is self-mocking.

3.         Jews lay emphasis upon the power of intellects. The power to understand their

own experience to judge their own life rationally to think well is considered a high virtue.

4.         Self-teaching is at the heart of almost all Jewish novels. The Jewish heroes often

try to seek a rational interpretation of the world through their own experience in it.

V.                 Saul Bellow

1.         life

2.         works

(1)      Dangling Man

(2)      The Adventures of Augie March

(3)      Henderson the Rain King

(4)      Herzog

(5)      Mr. Sammler’s Planet

(6)      Humboldt’s Gift

(7)      The Dean’s December

3.         point of view

(1)      Saul Bellow’s strength lies in his faith in man and man’s ability to offer a “spirited

resistance to the forces of our time”. As he sees it, modern man has lived through

frustration and defeat, managed to grapple with destructive historical pressures, and

striven for “certain durable human goods” – truth, freedom, and wisdom.

(2)      He is highly critical of modern life in which the old value system is no longer

functioning. His major characters are all concerned to find a way that would keep

American civilization from going under. They body forth Bellow’s credo that art has

something to do with the achievement of stillness in the midst of chaos”, and that “a

novelist begins with disorder and disharmony and goes toward order by an unknown

process of the imagination”.

4.         characteristics of his heroes

Most of Saul Bellow’s heroes are marginal men, alienated or absurd characters caught

between their own inadequacies and those imposed upon them by their friends and

society. Most of them are Jewish intellectuals or writers who try to discover the

queerness of existence and overcome it. Struggling with the impersonality of the physical

world, agonized by their own awareness of morality, his protagonists laugh at their own

deficiency with irony because it relieves despair. The hunger for community, yet they

hold back because that world have to betray the sanctity of their private self in order to

achieve it.

5.         style: realism + modernism

Chapter 7 American Drama

I.                   Brief Introduction

1.         17th century

l         Ye Bare and Ye Cubb (1665) by William Darby

2.         18th century

l         American subjects began to be treated seriously. The first tragedy is The Contrast

(1787) by Royal Tyler. It is considered “typical American play” about American soldiers.

3.         19th century

l         poetical plays, esp in the first half of a group of playwrights

l         after civil war: realism, melodrama, emotional incidents (domestic melodrama), with

simple plots

4.         20th century

separation from the old tradition

l         1920s: “Little Theatre Movement” began after 1912, Washington Square Players,

Provincetown Players (New York City, Greenage Village). They are freed from the

conventional theatre and can be as experimental as they like.

l         1930s: Eugene O’Neil, Clifford Odets

l         Post-war: second climax of American drama, Arthur Miller: Death of a Salesman

l         60s: Theatre of the Absurd, Edward Albee

II.                Eugene O’Neil

1.         life

2.         works

(1)      Bound East for Cardiff

(2)      Beyond the Horizon

(3)      The Emperor Jones

(4)      The Hairy Ape

(5)      Desire under the Elms

(6)      The Iceman Cometh

(7)      Long Day’s Journey into Night

3.         point of view

His purpose is to get the root of human desires and frustrations. He showed most

characters in his plays as seeking meaning and purpose in their lives, some through

love, some through religion, some through revenge, all met disappointment. The

characters seem to share O’Neil’s perplexities of human nature. As a result of his tragic

and nihilistic view of life, his works, in general, indicated chaos and hopelessness.

4.         The Hairy Ape

Yank

5.         style

(1)      O’Neil was a tireless experimentalist in dramatic art. He paid little attention to the

division of scenes. He introduced the realistic or even the naturalistic into the American

theatre.

(2)      He borrowed freely from the best traditions of European drama, especially the

stream of consciousness.

(3)      He made use of setting and stage property to help in his dramatic representation.

(4)      He wrote long introduction and directions for all the scenes, explaining the mood

and atmosphere.

(5)      He sometimes wrote the actors’ lines in dialect.

6.         His position

He was the first playwright to explore serious themes in theatre. With him, American

drama developed into a form of literature. And in him, American drama came of age

(mature). He came only after Shakespeare and Bernard Shaw in the world of drama.

III.             Tennessee Williams

1.         life

2.         point of view and themes

He writes about violence, sex, homosexuality (taboos in drama). Some of his plays

rooted in southern social scene. The characters are often unhappy wanderers; lonely,

vulnerable women indulged in memory of the past or illusion of the future. He was

attracted to bizarre characters and their predicament. He looked deeply into the

psychology of the outcasts of society. He saw life a game which cannot be won. Almost

all his characters are defeated.

3.         his plays

(1)      The Glass Menagerie

(2)      A Streetcar Named Desire

(3)      Summer and Smoke

(4)      Cat on a Hot Tin Roof

4.         style

(1)      combination of coarseness and poetry

(2)      vivid southern speech

(3)      He helped to break taboos, long imposed on the American literature.

IV.              Arthur Miller

1.         life

2.         theme: dilemma of modern man in relation to family and work

3.         his plays

(1)      The Man Who Had All the Luck

(2)      All My Sons

(3)      Death of a Salesman

(4)      The Crucible

(5)      A View for the Bridge

V.                 Theatre of the Absurd

1.         introduction: existentialist philosophy, mainly in Europe

2.         four founders: Samuel Beckett, Eugene Ionesco, Jean Genet, Arthur Adamov

3.         What is “absurd”?

Humorous and meaningless

4.         features

(1)      The basic assumption: human life lacks coherence and is chaotic. Life operates

without any rules.

(2)      The world is meaningless, so the play appears meaningless.

(3)      It examines the problems of life and death, of isolation and communication.

(4)      It satirizes people who are unaware of the ultimate reality (death).

(5)      In absurd drama, situation is more important than characters and events. The

dramatist wants to show people what their situation in their life is. Therefore, he

constructs a play which presents a picture of the universal situation. One result of these

is that the characters are often comic and humorous.

5.         Edward Albee

(1)      Life

(2)      Works

a.       Zoo Story

b.       Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf?

Chapter 8 Black American Literature

I.                   Overview

Negro – coloured (legally free) – black (after civil rights movement)

1.         oral tradition

(1)      songs and ballads

(2)      spirituals: sorrow of the singers’ earlier condition and longing for freedom

(3)      blues: after civil war, derived from work songs – loneliness, separation, losses,

wonderings, love, desperation, sense of doom

(4)      jazz: after WWI, developed from blues, died out in the Great Depression

2.         written literature (from 1760s)

(1)      poetry: religious, enduring, patient to the white

(2)      slave narrative: autobiographical experience of the person

(3)      1920s: Harlem Renaissance – New York, black – black dialect and black folklore –

the new negro” – representatives: Langston Hughes (“black poet laureate”), Huston,

Claude McKay

(4)      1940s: Richard Wright, Ralph Ellison

(5)      50s~60s: a lot of black writers emerged in the civil rights movement: James

Baldwin, Brooks, Jones

(6)      70s~80s: publishing of “Root” (Alex Haley), Walker – “The Colour Purple”,

Morrison (the second woman writer and the only black who won Nobel Prize)

II.                Richard Wright

1.         life

2.         works

(1)      Uncle Tom’s Children: Four Novellas

(2)      Native Son

(3)      Black Boy

(4)      The Outsider (the first novel of existentialism in America, published in France)

3.         themes and subjects

His common theme is to condemn racism, urge reform, criticize evils of society. His books

focus on racial conflict and physical violence. They review the devastating effect of

institutionalized hatred (hatred brought by social system) and humiliation on black males’

psyche. They affirmed dignity and humility of society’s outcasts.

4.         writing techniques – realism, naturalism

He tries to show that people cannot escape from society. Therefore, society must be

changed. He is a father figure, especially to the writers of violence.

III.             Ralph Ellison

1.         life

2.         works: Invisible Man

significance: It has a universality of theme (problems of all modern people), not only

regional dilemma of existence.

3.         attitude: complexity of art – the best art makes good politics, not vice versa.

IV.              James Baldwin

1.         life

2.         works

(1)      Go Tell It on the Mountain

(2)      Notes of a Native Son

(3)      Nobody Knows My Name

(4)      The Fire Next Time

3.         point of view

Baldwin calls for the blacks to resort to means including force so as to bring about the

nation’s self-realization. He saw love and understanding as difficult but necessary way to

overcome racial conflict.

4.         themes: race, homosexuality

V.                 Alice Walker

1.         life

2.         works

(1)      Once (a collection of poems)

(2)      In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens (“womanism” instead of feminism)

(3)      The Colour Purple (epistolary)

VI.              Toni Morrison

1.         life

2.         works

(1)      The Bluest Eye

(2)      Sula

(3)      Song of Solomon (the best black novel after Native Son and Invisible Man)

(4)      Tar Baby

(5)      Beloved

(6)      Jazz

(7)      Love (trilogy)

3.         themes: love, guilt, history, individual, gender, race, religion

4.         purpose: to empower the black people to act for themselves, to recognize for

their own world, own history, own reality

5.         style – many kinds of factors: naturalism, realism, fantasy, reality, magical

realism

 

英国文学简史笔记



        484    2-23          

 

Chapter 1 English Literature of Anglo-Saxon Period

I.                      Introduction

1. The historical background

(1) Before the Germanic invasion

(2) During the Germanic invasion

a. immigration;

b. Christianity;

c. heptarchy.

d. social classes structure: hide-hundred; eoldermen (lord) – thane - middle class

(freemen) - lower class (slave or bondmen: theow);

e. social organization: clan or tribes.

f. military Organization;

g. Church function: spirit, civil service, education;

h. economy: coins, trade, slavery;

i. feasts and festival: Halloween, Easter; j. legal system.

2. The Overview of the culture

(1) The mixture of pagan and Christian spirit.

(2) Literature: a. poetry: two types; b. prose: two figures.

 

II.                    Beowulf.

1. A general introduction.

2. The content.

3. The literary features.

     (1) the use of alliteration

     (2) the use of metaphors and understatements

     (3) the mixture of pagan and Christian elements

 

III.       The Old English Prose

1.      What is prose?

2.      figures

(1)     The Venerable Bede

(2)     Alfred the Great

Chapter 2 English Literature of the Late Medieval Ages

I.                      Introduction

1. The Historical Background.

(1) The year 1066: Norman Conquest.

(2) The social situations soon after the conquest.

A. Norman nobles and serfs;

B. restoration of the church.

(3) The 11th century.

A. the crusade and knights.

B. dominance of French and Latin;

(4) The 12th century.

A. the centralized government;

B. kings and the church (Henry II and Thomas);

(5) The 13th century.

A. The legend of Robin Hood;

B. Magna Carta (1215);

C. the beginning of the Parliament

D. English and Latin: official languages (the end)

(6) The 14th century.

a. the House of Lords and the House of Commons—conflict between the Parliament and

Kings;

b. the rise of towns.

c. the change of Church.

d. the role of women.

e. the Hundred Years’ War—starting.

f. the development of the trade: London.

g. the Black Death.

h. the Peasants’ Revolt—1381.

i. The translation of Bible by Wycliff.

(7) The 15th century.

a. The Peasants Revolt (1453)

b. The War of Roses between Lancasters and Yorks.

c. the printing-press—William Caxton.

d. the starting of Tudor Monarchy(1485)

2. The Overview of Literature.

(1) the stories from the Celtic lands of Wales and Brittany—great myths of the Middle

Ages.

(2) Geoffrye of Monmouth—Historia Regum Britanniae—King Authur.

(3) Wace—Le Roman de Brut.

(4) The romance.

(5) the second half of the 14th century: Langland, Gawin poet, Chaucer.

 

II.                    Sir Gawin and Green Knight.

1. a general introduction.

2. the plot.

 

III.             William Langland.

1. Life

2. Piers the Plowman

 

IV.                   Chaucer

1. Life

2. Literary Career: three periods

     (1) French period

     (2) Italian period

     (3) master period

3. The Canterbury Tales

A. The Framework;

B. The General Prologue;

C. The Tale Proper.

4. His Contribution.

     (1) He introduced from France the rhymed stanza of various types.

     (2) He is the first great poet who wrote in the current English language.

     (3) The spoken English of the time consisted of several dialects, and Chaucer did

much in making the dialect of London the standard for the modern English speech.

 

V.                     Popular Ballads.

 

VI.             Thomas Malory and English Prose

 

VII.     The beginning of English Drama.

1. Miracle Plays.

Miracle play or mystery play is a form of medieval drama that came from dramatization of

the liturgy of the Roman Catholic Church. It developed from the 10th to the 16th century,

reaching its height in the 15th century. The simple lyric character of the early texts was

enlarged by the addition of dialogue and dramatic action. Eventually the performance

was moved to the churchyard and the marketplace.

2. Morality Plays.

A morality play is a play enforcing a moral truth or lesson by means of the speech and

action of characters which are personified abstractions – figures representing vices and

virtues, qualities of the human mind, or abstract conceptions in general.

3. Interlude.

The interlude, which grew out of the morality, was intended, as its name implies, to be

used more as a filler than as the main part of an entertainment. As its best it was short,

witty, simple in plot, suited for the diversion of guests at a banquet, or for the relaxation

of the audience between the divisions of a serious play. It was essentially an indoors

performance, and generally of an aristocratic nature.

Chapter 3 English Literature in the Renaissance

I.                   A Historical Background

 

II.                    The Overview of the Literature (1485-1660)

Printing press—readership—growth of middle class—trade-education for

laypeople-centralization of power-intellectual life-exploration-new impetus and direction

of literature.

Humanism-study of the literature of classical antiquity and reformed education.

Literary style-modeled on the ancients.

The effect of humanism-the dissemination of the cultivated, clear, and sensible attitude

of its classically educated adherents.

1. poetry

The first tendency by Sidney and Spenser:  ornate, florid, highly figured style.

The second tendency by Donne: metaphysical style—complexity and ingenuity.

The third tendency by Johnson: reaction--Classically pure and restrained style.

The fourth tendency by Milton: central Christian and Biblical tradition.

2. Drama

a. the native tradition and classical examples.

b. the drama stands highest in popular estimation: Marlowe – Shakespeare – Jonson.

3. Prose

a. translation of Bible;

b. More;

c. Bacon.

 

II.                    English poetry.

1. Sir Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard (courtly makers)

(1) Wyatt: introducing sonnets.

(2) Howard: introducing sonnets and writing the first blank verse.

2. Sir Philip Sidney—poet, critic, prose writer

(1) Life:

a. English gentleman;

b. brilliant and fascinating personality;

c. courtier.

(2) works

a. Arcadia: pastoral romance;

b. Astrophel and Stella (108): sonnet sequence to Penelope Dvereux—platonic

devotion.

Petrarchan conceits and original feelings-moving to creativeness—building  of a

narrative story; theme-love originality-act of writing.

c. Defense of Poesy: an apology for imaginative literature—beginning  of literary

criticism.

3. Edmund Spenser

(1) life: Cambridge - Sidney’s friend - “Areopagus” – Ireland - Westminster Abbey.

(2) works

a. The Shepherds Calendar: the budding of English poetry in Renaissance.

b. Amoretti and Epithalamion: sonnet sequence

c. Faerie Queene:

l        The general end--A romantic and allegorical epic—steps to virtue.

l        12 books and 12 virtues:  Holiness, temperance, justice and courtesy.

l        Two-level function: part of the story and part of allegory (symbolic meaning)

l        Many allusions to classical writers.

l        Themes: puritanism, nationalism, humanism and Renaissance Neoclassicism—a

Christian humanist.

(3) Spenserian Stanza.

 

III.             English Prose

1. Thomas More

(1) Life: “Renaissance man”, scholar, statesman, theorist, prose writer, diplomat, patron

of arts

a. learned Greek at Canterbury College, Oxford;

b. studies law at Lincoln Inn;

c. Lord Chancellor;

d. beheaded.

(2) Utopia: the first English science fiction.

Written in Latin, two parts, the second—place of nowhere.

A philosophical mariner (Raphael Hythloday) tells his voyages in which he discovers a

land-Utopia.

a. The part one is organized as dialogue with mariner depicting his philosophy.

b. The part two is a description of the island kingdom where gold and silver are worn by

criminal, religious freedom is total and no one owns anything.

c. the nature of the book: attacking the chief political and social evils of his time.

d. the book and the Republic: an attempt to describe the Republic in a new way, but it

possesses an modern character and the resemblance is in externals.

e. it played a key role in the Humanist awakening of the 16th century which moved away

from the Medieval otherworldliness towards Renaissance secularism.

f. the Utopia

(3) the significance.

a. it was the first champion of national ideas and national languages; it created a

national prose, equally adapted to handling scientific and artistic material.

b. a elegant Latin scholar and the father of English prose: he composed works in

English, translated from Latin into English biography, wrote History of Richard III.

2. Francis Bacon: writer, philosopher and statesman

(1) life: Cambridge - humanism in Paris – knighted - Lord Chancellor – bribery - focusing

on philosophy and literature.

(2) philosophical ideas: advancement of science—people:servants  and interpreters of

nature—method: a child before nature—facts and observations: experimental.

(3) “Essays”: 57.

a. he was a master of numerous and varied styles.

b. his method is to weigh and balance maters, indicating the ideal course of action and

the practical one, pointing out the advantages and disadvantages of each, but leaving

the reader  to make the final decisions. (arguments)

 

IV.                   English Drama

1. A general survey.

(1) Everyman marks the beginning of modern drama.

(2) two influences.

a. the classics: classical in form and English in content;

b. native or popular drama.

(3) the University Wits.

2. Christopher Marlowe: greatest playwright before Shakespeare and most gifted of the

Wits.

(1) Life: first interested in classical poetry—then in drama.

(2) Major works

a. Tamburlaine;

b. The Jew of Malta;

c. The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus.

(3) The significance of his plays.

 

V.                     William Shakespeare

            1. Life

(1) 1564, Stratford-on-Avon;

(2) Grammar School;

(3) Queen visit to Castle;

(4) marriage to Anne Hathaway;

(5) London, the Globe Theatre: small part and proprietor;

(6) the 1st Folio, Quarto;

(7) Retired, son—Hamnet; H. 1616.

2. Dramatic career

3. Major plays-men-centered.

(1) Romeo and Juliet--tragic love and fate

(2) The Merchant of Venice.

Good over evil.

Anti-Semitism.

(3) Henry IV.

National unity.

Falstaff.

(4) Julius Caesar

Republicanism vs. dictatorship.

(5) Hamlet

Revenge

Good/evil.

(6) Othello

Diabolic character

jealousy

gap between appearance and reality.

(7) King Lear

Filial ingratitude

(8) Macbeth

Ambition vs. fate.

(9) Antony and Cleopatra.

Passion vs. reason

(10) The Tempest

Reconciliation; reality and illusion.

3. Non-dramatic poetry

(1) Venus and Adonis; The Rape of Lucrece.

(2) Sonnets:

                                    a. theme: fair, true, kind.

                                    b. two major parts: a handsome young man of noble birth; a lady

in dark complexion.

                                    c. the form: three quatrains and a couplet.

d. the rhyme scheme: abab, cdcd, efef, gg.

 

VI.       Ben Jonson

1. life: poet, dramatist, a Latin and Greek scholar, the “literary king” (Sons of Ben)

2.contribution:

(1) the idea of “humour”.

(2) an advocate of classical drama and  a forerunner of classicism in English literature.

3. Major plays

(1) Everyone in His Humour—”humour”; three unities.

(2) Volpone the Fox

 

 

Chapter 4 English Literature of the 17th Century

I.                   A Historical Background

 

II.                    The Overview of the Literature (1640-1688)

1. The revolution period

(1) The metaphysical poets;

(2) The Cavalier poets.

(3) Milton: the literary and philosophical heritage of the Renaissance merged with

Protestant political and moral conviction

2. The restoration period.

(1) The restoration of Charles II ushered in a literature characterized by reason,

moderation, good taste, deft management, and simplicity. (school of Ben Jonson)

(2) The ideals of impartial investigation and scientific experimentation promoted by the

newly founded Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge (1662) were

influential in the development of clear and simple prose as an instrument of rational

communication.

(3) The great philosophical and political treatises of the time emphasize rationalism.

(4) The restoration drama.

(5) The Age of Dryden.

 

III.       John Milton

1. Life: educated at Cambridge—visiting the continent—involved into the

revolution—persecuted—writing epics.

2. Literary career.

(1) The 1st period was up to 1641, during which time he is to be seen chiefly as a son of

the humanists and Elizabethans, although his Puritanism is not absent. L'Allegre and IL

Pens eroso (1632) are his early masterpieces, in which we find Milton a true offspring of

the Renaissance, a scholar of exquisite taste and rare culture. Next came Comus, a

masque. The greatest of early creations was Lycidas, a pastoral elegy on the death of a

college mate, Edward King.

(2) The second period is from 1641 to 1654, when the Puritan was in such complete

ascendancy that he wrote almost no poetry. In 1641, he began a long period of

pamphleteering for the puritan cause. For some 15 years, the Puritan in him alone ruled

his writing. He sacrificed his poetic ambition to the call of the liberty for which Puritans

were fighting.

(3) The third period is from 1655 to 1671, when humanist and Puritan have been fused

into an exalted entity. This period is the greatest in his literary life, epics and some

famous sonnets. The three long poems are the fruit of the long contest within Milton of

Renaissance tradition and his Puritan faith. They form the greatest accomplishments of

any English poet except Shakespeare. In Milton alone, it would seem, Puritanism could

not extinguish the lover of beauty. In these works we find humanism and Puritanism

merged in magnificence.

3. Major Works

(1) Paradise Lost

a. the plot.

b. characters.

c. theme: justify the ways of God to man.

(2) Paradise Regained.

(3) Samson Agonistes.

4. Features of Milton’s works.

(1) Milton is one of the very few truly great English writers who is also a prominent figure

in politics, and who is both a great poet and an important prose writer. The two most

essential things to be remembered about him are his Puritanism and his republicanism.

(2) Milton wrote many different types of poetry. He is especially a great master of blank

verse. He learned much from Shakespeare and first used blank verse in non-dramatic

works.

(3) Milton is a great stylist. He is famous for his grand style noted for its dignity and

polish, which is the result of his life-long classical and biblical study.

(4) Milton has always been admired for his sublimity of thought and majesty of

expression.

 

IV.                   John Bunyan

1. life:

(1) puritan age;

(2) poor family;

(3) parliamentary army;

(4) Baptist society, preacher;

(5) prison, writing the book. 

2. The Pilgrim Progress

(1) The allegory in dream form.

(2) the plot.

(3) the theme.

 

V.                     Metaphysical Poets and Cavalier Poets.

            1. Metaphysical Poets

The term “metaphysical poetry” is commonly used to designate the works of the 17th

century writers who wrote under the influence of John Donne. Pressured by the harsh,

uncomfortable and curious age, the metaphysical poets sought to shatter myths and

replace them with new philosophies, new sciences, new words and new poetry. They

tried to break away from the conventional fashion of Elizabethan love poetry, and

favoured in poetry for a more colloquial language and tone, a tightness of expression

and the single-minded working out of a theme or argument.

            2. Cavalier Poets

The other group prevailing in this period was that of Cavalier poets. They were often

courtiers who stood on the side of the king, and called themselves “sons” of Ben Jonson.

The Cavalier poets wrote light poetry, polished and elegant, amorous and gay, but often

superficial. Most of their verses were short songs, pretty madrigals, love fancies

characterized by lightness of heart and of morals. Cavalier poems have the limpidity of

the Elizabethan lyric without its imaginative flights. They are lighter and neater but less

fresh than the Elizabethan’s.

 

VI.       John Dryden.

1. Life:

(1) the representative of classicism in the Restoration.

(2) poet, dramatist, critic, prose writer, satirist.

(3) changeable in attitude.

(4) Literary career—four decades.

(5) Poet Laureate

2. His influences.

(1) He established the heroic couplet as the fashion for satiric, didactic, and descriptive

poetry.

(2) He developed a direct and concise prose style.

(3) He developed the art of literary criticism in his essays and in the numerous prefaces

to his poems.

 

 

Chapter 5 English Literature of the 18th Century

I.                      Introduction

1. The Historical Background.

2. The literary overview.

(1) The Enlightenment.

(2) The rise of English novels.

When the literary historian seeks to assign to each age its favourite form of literature, he

finds no difficulty in dealing with our own time. As the Middle Ages delighted in long

romantic narrative poems, the Elizabethans in drama, the Englishman of the reigns of

Anne and the early Georges in didactic and satirical verse, so the public of our day is

enamored of the novel. Almost all types of literary production continue to appear, but

whether we judge from the lists of publishers, the statistics of public libraries, or general

conversation, we find abundant evidence of the enormous preponderance of this kind of

literary entertainment in popular favour.

(3) Neo-classicism: a revival in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries of classical

standards of order, balance, and harmony in literature. John Dryden and Alexander

Pope were major exponents of the neo-classical school.

(4) Satiric literature.

(5) Sentimentalism

 

II.                    Neo-classicism. (a general description)

1. Alexander Pope

(1)     Life:

a.       Catholic family;

b.      ill health;

c.       taught himself by reading and translating;

d.      friend of Addison, Steele and Swift.

(2)     three groups of poems:

e.       An Essay on Criticism (manifesto of neo-classicism);

f.        The Rape of Lock;

g.       Translation of two epics.

(3)     His contribution:

h.       the heroic couplet—finish, elegance, wit, pointedness;

i.satire.

(4) weakness: lack of imagination.

2. Addison and Steele

(1) Richard Steele: poet, playwright, essayist, publisher of newspaper.

(2) Joseph Addison: studies at Oxford, secretary of state, created a literary periodical

Spectator” (with Steele, 1711)

(3) Spectator Club.

(4) The significance of their essays.

a. Their writings in “The Tatler”, and “The Spectator” provide a new code of social

morality for the rising bourgeoisie.

b. They give a true picture of the social life of England in the 18th century.

c. In their hands, the English essay completely established itself as a literary genre.

Using it as a form of character sketching and story telling, they ushered in the dawn of

the modern novel.

3. Samuel Johnson—poet, critic, essayist, lexicographer, editor.

(1)     Life:

a.studies at Oxford;

b.      made a living by writing and translating;

c.the great cham of literature.

(2) works: poem (The Vanity of Human Wishes, London); criticism (The Lives of great

Poets); preface.

(3) The champion of neoclassical ideas.

 

III.             Literature of Satire: Jonathan Swift.

1.      Life:

(1)     born in Ireland;

(2)     studies at Trinity College;

(3)     worked as a secretary;

(4)     the chief editor of The Examiner;

(5)     the Dean of St. Patrick’s in Dublin.

2. Works: The Battle of Books, A Tale of a Tub, A Modest Proposal, Gulliver’s Travels.

3. Gulliver’s Travels.

Part I. Satire—the Whig and the Tories, Anglican Church and Catholic Church.

Part II. Satire—the legal system; condemnation of war.

Part III. Satire—ridiculous scientific experiment.

Part IV. Satire—mankind.

 

IV.                   English Novels of Realistic tradition.

1. The Rise of novels.

(1)     Early forms: folk tale – fables – myths – epic – poetry – romances – fabliaux –

novelle - imaginative nature of their material. (imaginative narrative)

(2)     The rise of the novel

a.picaresque novel in Spain and England (16th century): Of or relating to a genre of

prose fiction that originated in Spain and depicts in realistic detail the adventures of a

roguish hero, often with satiric or humorous effects.

b.      Sidney: Arcadia.

c. Addison and Steele: The Spectator.

(plot and characterization and realism)

(3) novel and drama (17the century)

2. Daniel Defoe—novelist, poet, pamphleteer, publisher, merchant, journalist.)

(1)     Life:

a.business career;

b.      writing career;

c.interested in politics.

(2) Robinson Cusoe.

a. the story.

b. the significance of the character.

c. the features of his novels.

d. the style of language.

3. Henry Fielding—novelist.

(1)     Life:

a.unsuccessful dramatic career;

b.      legal career; writing career.

(2) works.

(3) Tom Jones.

a.the plot;

b.      characters: Tom, Blifil, Sophia;

c.significance.

(4) the theory of realism.

(5) the style of language.

 

V.                     Writers of Sentimentalism.

1. Introduction

2. Samuel Richardson—novelist, moralist (One who is unduly concerned with the morals

of others.)

(1)     Life:

a.printer book seller;

b.      letter writer.

(2) Pamela, Virtue Rewarded.

a.the story

b.      the significance

Pamela was a new thing in these ways:

a)        It discarded the “improbable and marvelous” accomplishments of the former

heroic romances, and pictured the life and love of ordinary people.

b)        Its intension was to afford not merely entertainment but also moral instruction.

c)        It described not only the sayings and doings of characters but their also their

secret thoughts and feelings. It was, in fact, the first English psycho-analytical novel.

 

3. Oliver Goldsmith—poet and novelist.

A. Life:

a.born in Ireland;

b.      a singer and tale-teller, a life of vagabondage;

c.bookseller;

d.      the Literary Club;

e.a miserable life;

f.  the most lovable character in English literature.

B. The Vicar of Wakefield.

a.story;

b.      the signicance.

 

VI.             English Drama of the 18th century

1. The decline of the drama

2. Richard Brinsley Sheriden

A. life.

B. works: Rivals, The School for Scandals.

C. significance of his plays.

          a. The Rivals and The School for Scandal are generally regarded as important

links between the masterpieces of Shakespeare and those of Bernard Shaw, and as true

classics in English comedy.

          b. In his plays, morality is the constant theme. He is much concerned with the

current moral issues and lashes harshly at the social vices of the day.

          c. Sheridan’s greatness also lies in his theatrical art. He seems to have inherited

from his parents a natural ability and inborn knowledge about the theatre. His plays are

the product of a dramatic genius as well as of a well-versed theatrical man.

          d. His plots are well-organized, his characters, either major or minor, are all

sharply drawn, and his manipulation of such devices as disguise, mistaken identity and

dramatic irony is masterly. Witty dialogues and neat and decent language also make a

characteristic of his plays.

 

 

Chapter 6 English Literature of the Romantic Age

I.                      Introduction

1. Historical Background

2. Literary Overview: Romanticism

     Characteristics of Romanticism:

     (1) The spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings

     (2) The creation of a world of imagination

     (3) The return to nature for material

     (4) Sympathy with the humble and glorification of the commonplace

     (5) Emphasis upon the expression of individual genius

     (6) The return to Milton and the Elizabethans for literary models

     (7) The interest in old stories and medieval romances

     (8) A sense of melancholy and loneliness

     (9) The rebellious spirit

 

II.                    Pre-Romantics

1. Robert Burns

(1) Life: French Revolution

(2) Features of poetry

a. Burns is chiefly remembered for his songs written in the Scottish dialect.

b. His poems are usually devoid of artificial ornament and have a great charm of

simplicity.

c. His poems are especially appreciated for their musical effect.

d. His political and satirical poems are noted for his passionate love for freedom and

fiery sentiments of hatred against tyranny.

                        (3) Significance of his poetry

His poetry marks an epoch in the history of English literature. They suggested that the

spirit of the Romantic revival was embodied in this obscure ploughman. Love, humour,

pathos, the response to nature – all the poetic qualities that touch the human heart are

in his poems, which marked the sunrise of another day – the day of Romanticism.

2. William Blake

(1) life: French Revolution

(2) works.

l        Songs of Innocence

l        Songs of Experience

(3) features

          a. sympathy with the French Revolution

          b. hatred for 18th century conformity and social institution

          c. attitude of revolt against authority

          d. strong protest against restrictive codes

(4) his influence

Blake is often regarded as a symbolist and mystic, and he has exerted a great influence

on twentieth century writers. His peculiarities of thought and imaginative vision have in

many ways proved far more congenial to the 20th century than they were to the 19th.

 

III.             Romantic Poets of the first generation

1. Introduction

2. William Wordsworth: representative poet, chief spokesman of Romantic poetry

(1) Life:

a.love nature;

b.      Cambridge;

c.tour to France;

d.      French revolution;

e.Dorathy;

f.  The Lake District;

g.friend of Coleridge;

h.conservative after revolution.

(2) works:

a. the Lyrical Ballads (preface): significance

b. The Prelude: a biographical poem.

c. the other poems

(3) Features of his poems.

a.Theme

A constant theme of his poetry was the growth of the human spirit through the natural

description with expressions of inward states of mind.

b.      characteristics of style.

His poems are characterized by a sympathy with the poor, simple peasants, and a

passionate love of nature.

3. Samuel Taylor Coleridge: poet and critic

(1) Life:

a.Cambridge;

b.      friend with Southey and Wordsworth;

c.taking opium.

(2) works.

l        The fall of Robespierre

l        The Rime of the Ancient Mariner

l        Kubla Khan

l        Biographia Literaria

(3) Biographia Literaria.

(4) His criticism

He was one of the first critics to give close critical attention to language. In both poetry

and criticism, his work is outstanding, but it is typical of him that his critical work is very

scattered and disorganized.

 

IV.                   Romantic Poets of the Second Generation.

1. Introduction

2. George Gordon Byron

(1) Life:

a.Cambridge, published poems and reviews;

b.      a tour of Europe and the East;

c.left England;

d.      friend with Shelley;

e.worked in Greece: national hero;

f.  radical and sympathetic with French Revolution.

(2) Works.

l        Don Juan

l        When We Two Parted

l        She Walks in Beauty

(3) Byronic Hero.

Byron introduced into English poetry a new style of character, which as often been

referred to as “Byronic Hero” of “satanic spirit”. People imagined that they saw

something of Byron himself in these strange figures of rebels, pirates, and desperate

adventurers.

(4) Poetic style: loose, fluent and vivid

3. Percy Bysshe Shelley: poet and critic

(1) Life:

a.aristocratic family;

b.      rebellious heart;

c.Oxford;

d.      Irish national liberation Movement;

e.disciple of William Godwin;

f.  marriage with Harriet, and Marry;

g.left England and wandered in EUrope, died in Italy;

h.radical and sympathetic with the French revolution;

i.  Friend with Byron

(2) works: two types – violent reformer and wanderer

(3) Characteristics of poems.

a.pursuit of a better society;

b.      radian beauty;

c. superb artistry: imagination.

(4) Defense of Poetry.

4. John Keats.

(1) Life:

a.from a poor family;

b.      Cockney School;

c.friend with Byron and Shelley;

d.      attacked by the conservatives and died in Italy.

(2) works.

(3) Characteristics of poems

a.loved beauty;

b.      seeking refuge in an idealistic world of illusions and dreams.

 

V.                     Novelists of the Romantic Age.

1. Water Scott. Novelist and poet

(1) Life:

a.Scotland;

b.      university of Edindurgh;

c.poem to novel;

d.      unsuccessful publishing firm;

e.great contribution: historical novel.

(2) three groups of novels

(3) Features of his novels.

(4) his influence.

2. Jane Austen

(1) Life:

a.country clergyman;

b.      uneventful life, domestic duties;

(2) works.

(3) features of her writings.

Austen’s novels are britened by their witty conversation and omnipresent humour. Her

stories are skillfully woven together; her plots never leave the path of realism, and have

always been sensible. Her language shines with an exquisite touch of lively

gracefulness, elegant and refined, but never showy. She herself compared her work to a

fine engraving made up on a little piece of ivory only two inches square. The comparison

is true. The ivory surface is small enough, but the lady who made the drawings of human

life on it was a real artist.

(4) rationalism, neoclassicism, romanticism and realism.

 

VI.             Familiar Essays.

1. Introduction

2. Charles Lamb: essayist and critic

(1) life:

a.poor family;

b.      friend of Coleridge;

c.sister Mary;

d.      worked in the East India House;

e.a miserable life;

f.  a man of mild character.

g.a Romanticist of the city.

(2) works: Essays of Elia. Three groups.

(3) Features.

          a. The most striking feature of his essays is his humour.

          b. Lamb was especially fond of old writers.

          c. His essays are intensely personal.

          d. He was a romanticist.

 

Chapter 7 English Literature of the Victorian Age

I.                      Introduction

1. Historical Background

     (1) An age of expansion

     (2) The conditions of the workers and the chartist movement

     (3) Reforms

     (4) Darwin’s theory of evolution and its influence

     (5) The women question

2. Literary Overview: critical realism.

In Victorian period appeared a new literary trend called critical realism. English critical

realism of the 19th century flourished in the 40s and in the early 50s. It found its

expression in the form of novel. The critical realists, most of whom were novelists,

described with much vividness and artistic skill the chief traits of the English society and

criticized the capitalist system from a democratic viewpoint.

II.                    Novels of Critical Realists.

1. Charles Dickens.

(1) Life:

a. clerk family;

b. a miserable childhood;

c. a clerk, a reporter, a writer;

d. a man of hard work.

(2) works of three periods.

          a. optimize

          b. frustration

          c. pessimism

(3) Features of his works.

a.character sketches and exaggeration

b.      broad humour and penetrating satire

c.complicated and fascinating plot

d.      the power of exposure

 

2. William Makepeace Thackeray

(1) Life:

a. born in India;

b. studied in Cambridge;

c. worked as artist and illustrator and writer.

(2) work: The Vanity Fair

(3) Thackeray and Dickens – features

a. Just like Dickens, Thackeray is one of the greatest critical realists of the 19th century

Europe. He paints life as he has seen it. With his precise and thorough observation, rich

knowledge of social life and of the human heart, the pictures in his novels are accurate

and true to life.

b. Thackeray is a satirist. His satire is caustic and his humour subtle.

c. Besides being a realist and satirist, Thackeray is a moralist. His aim is to produce a

moral impression in all his novels.

3. The Bronte Sisters

(1) Charlotte Bronte and Jane Eyre

(2) Emily Bronte and The Wuthering Heights.

4. George Eliot.

(1) Life:

a. Mary Ann Evans;

b. the rural midland;

c. abandoned religion;

d. interested in social philosophical problems;

e. editor of the Westminster Review;

f. George Henry Lewis.

(2) works

l        Adam Bede

l        Silas Marner

l        Middlemarch

(3) Features of works.

As a moralist, she shows in each of her characters the action and reaction of universal

forces and believes that every evil act must bring inevitable punishment to the man who

does it. Moral law was to her as inevitable and automatic as gravitation.

5. Thomas Hardy: novelist and poet

(1) Life:

a. Dorchester—”Wexssex;

b. close to peasantry;

c. belief in evolution.

(2) Works:

          a. Romances and fantasies

          b. novels of ingenuity

c. novels of characters and environment

(3) Ideas of Fate.

Unlike Dickens, most of Hardy’s novels are tragic. The cause of tragedy is man’s own

behaviour or his own fault but the supernatural forces that rule his fate. According to

Hardy, man is not the master of his destiny; he is at the mercy of indifferent forces which

manipulate his behaviour and his relations with others.

 

III.             English Poets of the Age

1. Alfred Tennyson

(1) life:

a. Cambridge;

b. friend with Hallem;

c. poet laureate.

(2) Works: In Memoriam; Idylls of the King.

2. Robert Browning.

(1) Life: married Elizabeth Barret, a poetess.

(2) Works

(3) the Dramatic Monologue

The dramatic monologue is a soliloquy in drama in which the voice speaking is not the

poet himself, but a character invented by the poet, so that it reflects life objectively. It

was imitated by many poets after Browning and brought to its most sophisticated form by

T. S. Eliot in his The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock (1915)

 

IV.                   English Prose of the age

1. Thomas Carlyle

     (1) life

     (2) works

2. John Ruskin

     (1) life

     (2) works

     (3) social and aesthetic ideas

 

V.                     Aestheticism

1. Aestheticism

the basic theory of the aesthetic – “art for art’s sake” – was set forth by a French poet,

Theophile Gautier. The first Englishman who wrote about the theory of aestheticism was

Walter Peter, the most important critical writer of the late Victorian period, whose most

important works were studies in the History of Renaissance and Appreciations. The chief

representative of the movement in England was Oscar Wilde, with his The Picture of

Dorian Gray. Aestheticism places art above life, and holds that life should imitate art, not

art imitate life. According to aesthetes, all artistic creation is absolutely subjective as

opposed to objective. Art should be free from any influence of egoism. Only when art is

for art’s sake can it be immortal. It should be restricted to contributing beauty in a highly

polished style.

2.  Oscar Wilde

(1) Life: dramatist, poet, novelist and essayist, spokesman for the school of “Art for art’s

sake”, the leader of the Aesthetic movement

(2) works

l        The Happy Prince and Other Tales

l        The Picture of Dorian Gray

l        The Importance of Being Earnest

 

Chapter 8 English Literature of the first half of the 20th Century

I.         Historical Background

1.        rational changes on old traditions, in social standards and in people’s thoughts

2.        the high tide of anti-Victorianism

3.        the First World War

4.        the success of women’s struggle for social and civil rights

 

II.      Overview of the Literature – the Modernism

1.        What is modernism?

The reaction against the value of Victorian society and the theme of its literature that

began in the 1890s, particularly with the so-called dissident writers, was manifested in

the early decades of the 20th century by drastic changes in form, vocabulary, and

image. These changes were not limited to England. The movement, which has come to

be called modernism, was international in scope and drew heavily on the French

Symbolist poets as well as on the new psychological teachings of Sigmund Freud, Carl

Gustav Jung, and their followers in Vienna and Switzerland.

2.        Features of modernism

                   (1)              Complexity

                   (2)              Radical and deliberate break with traditional aesthetic principles

                   (3)              Back to Aristotle

3.        Development of modernism after WWII

Section 1 Poetry

I.         A General Survey

1.        The century has produced a large number of both major and minor poets, many

of whom have received general acclaim.

2.        Many writers of significant works of fiction also write distinguished poetry.

3.        The poets of the 20th century have tended to group themselves into schools

whose poetry has particular distinguishing characteristics.

 

II.      Thomas Hardy

1.        life

2.        works

                   (1)              his poetry

a.Wessex Poems and Other Verses

b.        Poems of the Past and the Present

c.Time’s Laughing Stocks

d.        Moments of Vision

e.Late Lyrics and Earlier

f.  The famous Tragedy of the Queen of Cornwell

g.Winter Words

                   (2)              his fictions

a.Tess of the D’Urbervilles

b.        Jude the Obscure

c.The Return of the Native

d.        Far from the Madding Crowd

e.The Mayor of Casterbridge

3.        point of view

According to his pessimistic philosophy, mankind is subjected to the rule of some hostile

mysterious fate, which brings misfortune into human life.

 

III.   William Butler Yeats

1.        Life – poet and dramatist

2.        Works

                   (1)              his poetry

a.The Responsibilities

b.        The Wild Swans at Coole

c.The Tower

d.        The Winding Stair

                   (2)              his dramas

a.The Hour Glass

b.        The Land of Heart’s Desire

c.On Baile’s Strand

                   (3)              his book of philosophy – Visions

3.        style

He is a celebrated and accomplished symbolist poet, using an elaborate system of

symbols in his poems. Some of his symbols are simple, whereas others are difficult to

comprehend. But read as a whole, his poetry is elucidated by itself and gives the reader

many memorable stanzas and lines of great poetry. He is referred to by T. S. Eliot as

the greatest poet of our age – certainly the greatest in this (i.e. English) language”.

 

IV.    Thomas Stearns Eliot

1.        life- poet, playwright, literary critic

2.        works

(1)     poems

l        The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock

l        The Waste Land (epic)

l        Hollow Man

l        Ash Wednesday

l        Four Quarters

(2)     Plays

l        Murder in the Cathedral

l        Sweeney Agonistes

l        The Cocktail Party

l        The Confidential Clerk

(3)     Critical essays

l        The Sacred Wood

l        Essays on Style and Order

l        Elizabethan Essays

l        The Use of Poetry and The Use of Criticisms

l        After Strange Gods

3.        point of view

(1)     The modern society is futile and chaotic.

(2)     Only poets can create some order out of chaos.

(3)     The method to use is to compare the past and the present.

4.        Style

(1)     Fresh visual imagery, flexible tone and highly expressive rhythm

(2)     Difficult and disconnected images and symbols, quotations and allusions

(3)     Elliptical structures, strange juxtapositions, an absence of bridges

5.        The Waste Land: five parts

(1)     The Burial of the Dead

(2)     A Game of Chess

(3)     The Fire Sermon

(4)     Death by Water

(5)     What the Thunder Said

 

Section 2 Fiction

I.         The Continuing of Realism

1.        The two characteristics of 20th century fiction

                   (1)              Modernism

                   (2)              Continuation of the tradition of realism

2.        The beginning

3.        General features

 

II.      John Galsworthy

1.        life

2.        works

                   (1)              The Island Pharisees

                   (2)              Turgenev

                   (3)              The Man of Property

                   (4)              In Chancery

                   (5)              Forsyte Saga

                   (6)              The End of the Chapter

                   (7)              The Silver Box

                   (8)              Strife

3.        point of view

The novels and plays of Galsworthy give a complete picture of English bourgeois

society. A bourgeois himself, Galsworthy nevertheless clearly saw the decline of his

class and truthfully portrayed this in his works. Yet his criticism of the bourgeoisie was

limited to the spheres of ethics and aesthetics only. He aimed to improve his class,

wishing it might retain its ruling position in society. His bourgeois conservatism is

particularly evident in the works written after WWI and the October Revolution. Facing

the crisis of British imperialism and the growing forces of socialism, Galsworthy began to

idealize the decadent bourgeoisie. This is particularly evident in his last trilogy The End

of the Chapter.

4.        style

                   (1)              strength and elasticity

                   (2)              powerful sweep

                   (3)              brilliant illustrations

                   (4)              deep psychological analysis

 

III.   Stream of Consciousness

1.        James Joyce

                   (1)              life

                   (2)              major works

a.A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man

b.        Dubliners

c.Ulysses

d.        Finnegans Wake

                   (3)              significance of his works

a.He changed the old style of fictions and created a strange mode of art to show the

chaos and crisis of consciousness of that period.

b.        From him, stream of consciousness came to the highest point as a genre of

modern literature.

c.In Finnegans Wake, this pursue of newness overrode the normalness and showed a

tendency of vanity.

2.        Virginia Woolf

                   (1)              life

                   (2)              works

a.Mrs. Dalloway

b.        To the Lighthouse

c.The Waves

d.        Orlando

e.Flush

f.  The Years

g.Between the Acts

h.A Room of One’s Own

i.  Three Guineas

j.  Modern Fiction

k.        The Common Reader (2 series)

                   (3)              point of view

a.She challenged the traditional way of writing and created her novels in a new way.

b.        She thought the depiction of details darkened the characters.

c.She called the writers for writing about events of daily life that gave one deep

impression.

3.        influence

                   (1)              The stream of consciousness presented by Joyce and Woolf

marks a total break from the tradition of fiction and has promoted the development of

modernism.

                   (2)              However, at the same time, because of the newness in form but

hard to understand, this kind of fiction cannot attract readers.

                   (3)              The writers showed interest in the psychological depiction of the

bourgeoisie but neglected the conflict that most people cared about at that time.

 

IV.    David Herbert Lawrence

1.        life

2.        works

                   (1)              Sons and Lovers

                   (2)              The Rainbow

                   (3)              Women in Love

                   (4)              Lady Chatterlay’s Lover

3.        his influence

 

Section 3 Drama

I.         Overview

1.        the development of science (light) and the revival of drama

2.        social dramas

3.        the renaissance of Irish dramas

4.        the poetic drama

5.        different schools of drama

 

II.      George Bernard Shaw

1.        life

2.        works

                   (1)              Widower’s Houses

                   (2)              Man and Superman

                   (3)              Major Barbara

                   (4)              Pygmalion

                   (5)              Heartbreak House

                   (6)              Mrs. Warren’s Profession

                   (7)              The Apple Cart

                   (8)              Saint Joan

3.        point of view

                   (1)              Shaw was very much impressed by the Norwegian dramatist

Ibsen.

                   (2)              He opposed the idea of “art for art’s sake”, maintaining that “the

theatre must turn from the drama of romance and sensuality to the drama of edification”.

                   (3)              He sought from the beginning to expose the hypocrisy, stupidity,

and conventionality of the English way of life as he saw it with a rich wit and lively sense

of comedy.

                   (4)              His heroes and heroines are always unheroic, unromantic,

common sense people, and he used them to convey ideas.

4.        style

                   (1)              Shaw is a critical realist writer. His plays bitterly criticize and

attack English bourgeois society.

                   (2)              His plays deal with contemporary social problems. He portrays

his situations frankly and honestly, intending to shock his audiences with a new view of

society.

                   (3)              He is a humorist and manages to produce amusing and

laughable situations.

 

 

美国概况笔记



        560    2-23          

 

美国部分开始

chapter 13 geography 地理位置

1.Alaska and Hawaii are the two newest states in American.Alaska northwestern

Canada,and Hawaii lies in the central Pacific.

阿拉斯加和夏威夷是最近加入美国的两个新州。阿拉斯加在加拿大的西北部,夏威夷位邻

中太平洋。(本细节还有考“一句话简答”的可能)

2.The U.S has a land area of 9.3 million square kilometres.It is the fourth largest country

in the world in size after Russia,Canada and China.

就面积而言,美国是世界第四大国,就人口而言,美国是世界是第三大国。

3.Of all states of American,Alaska is the lagest in area and Rhode Island the

smallest.But on the mainland Texas is the largest sate of the country.

所有州中,阿拉斯加是面积最大的州,罗得岛最小,在美国大陆,最大的州是得克萨斯州

4.The Rockies,the backbone of the North American Continent,is also known as the

Continental Divide.

落基山脉是北美大陆的脊梁,也被成为大陆分水岭。

5.The two main mountain ranges in American are the Appalachian mountains and the

Rocky mountains. The Appalachians run slightly from the northeast to southwest and the

Rocky mountains run slightly from the northwest to southeast.

阿巴拉契亚山脉和落基山脉是美国的两座大山脉。(本细节有考“一句话简答题”的可能)

6.The Mississippi River is the largest river in American,over 6000 kilometers.The

Mississippi has been called "father of waters"or "old man river"

密西西比河是美国最长河流,有被称作“众水之父”或“老人河”。

7.The Ohio river has been called the American Ruhr,As in Germany, the area along the

river is rich in valuable deposits of high-grade coking coal and is well known for its steel

industry.The river provides cheap water transportation for raw materials.

俄亥俄河被称作美国的鲁尔河,就像德国一样,沿河有丰富的高品千周的焦煤,并且因其

钢铁而著名。另外,该河还为原材料提供了廉价的水路运输。

8.On the Pacific side there are two great rivers:the Colorado in the south and the

Columbia ,which rises in Canada.

太平洋沿岸有两大河:科罗拉多河及哥伦比亚河。

9The Rio Grande River forms a natural boundary between Mexico and the United

States.

格兰德河是美国和墨西哥之间的开然界河(本细节考选择和简答可能性大)

10.the most important lakes in the United States are the Great Lakes. They are Lake

Superior,which is the largest fresh water lake in the world, Lake Michigan ,the only

entirely in the U.S.,Lake Huron,Lake Eire and Lake Ontario.They are located between

Canada and the United States except Lake Michigan.

美国最重要的湖泊是五大湖:苏必利尔湖,密歇根湖,休伦湖,伊利湖和安大略湖,其中

,苏必利尔湖为世界最大淡水湖,密歇根湖完全是美国境地内。

11。美国气候概述

1) A humid continental climate(湿润的大陆性气候) is found in the north-eastern part of

the country.

2) In the south-eastern United States you can find a humid subtropical climate.(湿润的亚

热带气候---东南部)

3The Pacific northwest is favored with a maritime climate海洋性气候--太平洋西北岸)

4The southern part of the Pacific coast in California(加州太平洋沿岸南部) has a

Mediterranean climate (地中海式气候)with warm,dry summers and moist winters.

12.Many factors besides latitude influence the climate in the United States.Perhaps the

most important forces are the Atlantic and Pacific oceans,the Gulf of Mexick ,and the

Great Lakes.

影响美国气候的最主要的因素为:太平洋,和大西泮,墨西哥湾,五大湖。

13.Traditionally from the east to the west the United States can be divided into seven

geographical regions.美国从东到西可分为七个地理区。

14.New English is made up of six states of the Northeast .Becaust of its stony soil it is not

noted for its agriculture .Dairying is the most inportant farm activity,New English is also

well-known for its position in education,Many famous universities and colleges such as

Yale,Harvard,thd Massachusetts Institute of Technology(MIT) are located here.

新英格兰由美国东北部六个州组成,由于土壤多石,不利于农业生产,乳制品业是最重要

的农业活动,许多重点大学如耶鲁大学,哈佛大学和麻省理工学院都坐落于此。

15New Englanders were originally knows as Yankees,which came to stand for alll

American.新英格兰人最初曾被称作“美国佬:这一名称,后来渐渐指所有的美国人。(选

择)

16The Middle Atlantic States have about one fifth of the total population of the united

states.大西洋中部各州的人口占美国总人口的1/5

17.The soil is rich,the rain usually pientiful and the growing season long,These factors

make the Midwest America's most important agricultural area .It is also a major

manufacturing region and the nation's leading center of heavy industry.

中西部地区是美国最重要的农业区,也是主要的制造业区各最主要的重工业区。

18.Chicago,the largest and busiest port on the Great Lakes, is the largest industral and

commercial center of the area.芝加哥是五大湖最大最忙的港口,也是该地区最大的工商业

中心。

19.Detroit is known as the automobile capital of the world.Omaha is known as the

agricultural capital of the United states.底特律被称作“汽车之都,奥马哈被称作农业之都

20.Dry farming ,irrigation farming,and the cattle and sheep herding are the main

cativities of the Great Plains of the American West.

旱地农业,灌溉农业和牛羊牧业是美国西部大平原地区的主要活动。

21.Colorado has been called the steel city of the west ,Denver is the largest city of the

Great Plains.科罗拉多市被称作“西部钢城”,丹佛市是大平原地区最大的城市。

22the largest groups of Native Americans are found on the Colorado Plateau.

美国最大的土著群落位于科罗拉多高原。

23.Mmauna Loa,the world's largest volcano,is located on Haiwaii and erupts from time to

time,Suger cane and pineapples anr Haiwaii's main crops.Tourism is Haiwaii's most

important industry.莫纳洛阿火山是世界最大和活火山,甘蔗和菠罗是夏威夷的两大作物,

旅游业是夏威夷最重要的产业。

24Honolulu is the capital of Haiwaii and Juneau is the capital of Alaska.

火奴鲁鲁是夏威夷的首府,朱诺是阿拉斯加的首府。

 

 英语国家概况笔记



        682    2-23          

 

第一章

Land and People

英国的国土与人民

I. Different Names for Britain and its Parts

英国的不同名称及其各组成部分

1.Geographical names: the British Isles, Great Britain and England.

地理名称:不列颠群岛,大不列颠和英格兰。

2.Official name: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

官方正式名称:大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国。

3.The British Isles are made up of two large islands-Great Britain (the larger one) and

Ireland, and hundreds of small ones.

不列颠群岛由两个大岛—大不列颠岛(较大的一个)和爱尔兰岛,及成千上万个小岛组成

4.Three political divisions on the island of Great Britain: England, Scotland and Wales.

大不列颠岛上有三个政治区:英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士。

(1) England is in the southern part of Great Britain. It is the largest, most populous

section.

英格兰位于大不列颠岛南部,是最大,人口最稠密的地区。

(2) Scotland is in the north of Great Britain. It has three natural zones (the Highlands in

the north; the Central lowlands; the south Uplands) Capital: Edinburgh

苏格兰位于大不列颠的北部。它有三大自然区:北部高地,中部低地及南部山陵。首府:

爱丁堡。

(3) Wales is in the west of Great Britain. Capital: Cardiff

威尔士位于大不列颠的西部。首府:加的夫

(4) Northern Ireland is the fourth region of the UK. Capital: Belfast.

北爱尔兰是英国第四个区域。首府:贝尔法斯特。

5.The Commonwealth (of nations) is a free association of independent countries that

were once colonies of Britain. It was founded in 1931, and has 50 member countries until

1991.

英联邦是曾为英国殖民地的、但现已独立国家所构成的自由联合体。它成立于1931年,至

1990年止已有50个成员国。

II. Geographical Features 英国的地理特征

1.Geographical position of Britain:

英国的地理位置:

Britain is an island country surrounded by the sea. It lies in the North Atlantic Ocean off

the north coast of Europe. It is separated from the rest of Europe by the English

Channel in the south and the North Sea in the east.

英国是一个岛国。它位于大西洋北部,与欧洲大陆的北海岸隔海相望。南面的英吉利海峡

和东面的北海将它与欧洲其它部分隔开。

2.The north and west of Britain are mainly highlands; and the east and southeast are

mostly lowlands.

英国的西部和北部主要是高地,东部和东南部主要是低地。

III. Rivers and Lakes 河流与湖泊

Ben Nevis is the highest mountain in Britain (1,343m).

本尼维斯山为英国最高峰,海拔1,343米。

Severn River is the longest river in Britain (338km).

塞文河是英国最长的河流。全长338公里。

Thames River is the second longest and most important river in Britain. (336km).

泰晤士河是英国第二大河,也是英国最重要的河。全长336公里。

Lough Neagh is the largest lake in Britain which is located in Northern Ireland. (396

square kilometres).

讷湖(内伊湖)是英国最大的湖,位于北爱尔兰。面积为396平方公里。

River Clyde is the most important river in Scotland.

克莱德河是苏格兰最重要的河流。

Snowdonia is the highest mountain in Wales.1,085m

斯诺多尼亚是威尔士的最高点,海拔1,085米。

IV. Climate 气候

1. Britain's favorable climate 英国有利的气候条件:

Britain has a maritime climate-winters are not too cold and summers are not too hot. It

has a steady reliable rainfall throughout the whole year. The temperature varies within a

small range.

英国属于海洋性气候:冬季不过于寒冷,夏季不过于炎热。全年有稳定可靠的降雨量,气

温变化幅度小。

2.The factors influence the climate in Britain:

影响英国气候的因素:

1The surrounding waters tend to balance the seasonal differences by heating up the

land in winter and cooling it off in summer;

环绕四周的海水。冬天,海水可使岛内气温升高,夏天则使气温降低,从而起到平衡季节

温差的作用;

2)The prevailing south-west winds or the Westerlies blow over the country all the year

round bringing warm and wet air in winter and keeping the temperatures moderate;

一年四季盛行的西南风和西风在冬季从大西洋带来温暖、潮湿的空气,使气温适宜;

3The North Atlantic Drift passes the western coast of the British Isles and warms them.

北大西洋暖流经不列颠群岛西海岸,使气候变暖。

3.Rainfall 降雨量:

Britain has a steady reliable rainfall throughout the whole year. The average annual

rainfall in Britain is over 1,000mm. There is a water surplus in the north and west, and a

water deficit in the south and east.

英国全年降雨量稳定,平均降雨量超过1000毫米。 英国北部、西部雨量过多,但是南部、

东部有所缺乏。

V. The People 人口

1.population distribution 人口分布:

Britain has a population of about 57 millions and it is very unevenly distributed. 90% of

the population is urban and only 10% is rural. The population of Britain is made up

mainly of the English (81.5%), the Scottish (9.6%), the Welsh (1.9%), the Irish (2.4%),

the Northern Irish (1.8%) and other peoples (2.8%).

英国人口约570万,分布极不均匀,90%是城市人口,只有10%是农村人口。英国人口组成

为:英格兰人(81.5%),苏格兰人(9.6%),威尔士人(1.9%),爱尔兰人、北爱尔兰

人和其他民族居民。

2.The difference between the ancestors of the English and Scots, Welsh and Irish:

英伦三岛民族的祖先:

The ancestors of the English are Anglo-Saxons, the Scots, Welsh and Irish are Celts.

英格兰人祖先属于盎格鲁—萨克逊人,而苏格兰、威尔士和爱尔兰人属于凯尔特人。

3.The difference in character个性差别:

The Welsh are emotional and cheerful people. They are music lovers and are proud of

their past.

威尔士人感情丰富,情绪高涨,热爱音乐,为过去感到自豪。

The Scots are said to be a serious, cautious and thrifty people, and they are also

hospitable, generous and friendly.

苏格兰人通常被认为严肃、谨慎而且节俭,但是他们同样也热情、大方且友好。

The Irish are charm and vivacity. 爱尔兰人充满魅力,生性活泼。

4.The difference in speech between southern England and northern England:

英格兰南方人和北方人语言上的差别:

Southerners speak the type of English close to BBC English; In northern England,

regional speech is usually "broader" than that of southern England.

南方人讲的英语接近BBC,北英格兰人的发音通常要比南英格兰人宽。

5.The Welsh keep their language and culture in this way: 威尔士人以这样的方式使他们

的语言及文化保持活力。

Throughout the year they have festivals of song and dance and poetry called

Eisteddfodau. The great event of the year is the National Eisteddfod. On these

occasions competitions are held in Welsh poetry, music, singing and art.

一年中他们有称之为“艺术年会”的唱歌、跳舞、诗歌节。一年中最重要的节日是全国诗歌音

乐比赛会。在那里会举行威尔士诗歌、音乐、唱歌和艺术比赛。

6.The main problem in Northern Ireland: 北爱尔兰存在的主要问题:

The fight between the Protestants who are the dominant group, and the Roman

Catholics, who are seeking more social, political and economic opportunities.

作为统治者的新教徒和要求更多社会、政治及经济权利的罗马天主教徒之间的斗争。

7.Immigrants: 移民:

About three million have come to Britain to live and find work since World War II.

自从二战以来约有三百万人来英国生活、工作。

第二章

The Origins of a Nation (5000BC-1066)

英国的起源(公元前5000年—1066年)

I.Early Settlers 5000BC-55BC

早期的居民(公元前5000年—公元前55年)

1The first known settlers of Britain were the Iberians.

人们所知的英国最早居民是伊比利来人。

2 At about 2000 BC the Beaker Folk arrived from the areas now know as Holland and

Rhineland.

约公元前2000年,从现在的荷兰和莱茵兰地区来了宽口陶器人。

3 The Celts began to arrive Britain about 700 BC.

约公元前700年,克尔特人来到不列颠岛。

4 The Celts came to Britain in three main waves.

克尔特人来到不列颠有三次高潮。

The first wave were the Gaels-came about 600 BC.

第一次高潮是约公元前600年盖尔人的来临。

The second wave were the Brythons-came about 400 BC.

第二次高潮是约公元前400年布立吞(不列颠)人的抵达。

The third wave were the Belgae-came about 150 BC.

第三次是约公元前150年比利其人的到达。

II. Roman Britain (55BC-410AD)

罗马人统治时期的英国(公元前55年—410年)

1.British recorded history begins with the Roman invasion. In 55BC and 54BC, Julius

Caesar, a Roman general, invaded Britain twice. In AD 43, the Emperor Claudius

invaded Britain successfully. For nearly 400 years, Britain was under the Roman

occupation, though it was never a total occupation.

有记录的英国历史开始于罗马人的入侵。公元前55年和54年,罗马将军朱略斯&#8226;

撒两次入侵英国,均未成功。直到公元43年,克劳锹才成功占领不列颠。将近四百年里,

英国人处于罗马人的占领下,但这并非是完全的占领。

2. Roman’s influence on Britain.

The Roman built many towns, road, baths, temples and buildings. They make good use

of Britain’s natural resources. They also brought the new religion, Christianity, to Britain.

罗马人修建了许多城镇网,道路,澡堂,庙宇和其他建筑物。他们还很好地利用了英国的

自然资源。罗马人还把基督教这门新宗教带到不列颠。

3.Reasons for limited Roman influence on Britain.

罗马对不列颠的影响有限的原因。

First, the Romans always treated the Britons as a subject people of slave class. Second,

never during the 4 centuries did the Romans and Britons intermarry. Third, the Romans

had no impact on the language or culture of ordinary Britons.

首先,罗马人把不列颠人当作奴隶阶段的属民来对待。其次,在四世纪对罗马人和不列颠

人通婚。最后,罗马人也未影响普通不列颠人的语言和文化。

Summary: This is the second part of Chapter 2 (The Origins of a Nation). It introduced

some important events and important people in England from 446 to 1066. These most

important events are The Anglos-Saxons’ invasion; The Viking and Danish Invasions

and The Norman Conquest.

(简要:这是第二章“国家的起源”的第二部分。在这一部分里,主要是介绍了英国从公元446

年到1066年所发生的重要事件及人物。这些重要事件分别是盎格鲁—撒克逊人的入侵,北

欧海盗和丹麦人的入侵及诺曼征服)

III. The Anglo-Saxons (446-871)

盎格鲁—撒克逊人(公元446871年)

1 Basis of Modern English race: the Anglo-Saxons.

盎格鲁—萨克逊时代(奠定了英国的基础)

In the mid-5th century a new wave of invaders, Jutes, Saxons, and Angles came to

Britain. They were three Teutonic tribes.

The Jutes, who fished and farmed in Jutland, came to Britain first. A Jutish chief became

the King of Kent in 449. Then the Saxons, users of the short-sword from northern

Germany, established their kingdom in Essex, Sussex and Wessex from the end of the

5th century to the beginning of the 6th century. In the second half of the 6th century. In

the second half of the 6th century, the Angles, who also came from northern Germany

and were to give their name to the English people, settled in East Anglia, Mercia and

Northumbria. These seven principal kingdoms of Kent, Essex, Sussex, Wessex, East

Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria have been given the name of Heptarchy.

五世纪中叶,朱特人、撒克逊人和盎格鲁人不断入侵不列颠。这是三支日耳曼(条顿)部

落。

居住在朱特兰岛(现丹麦南部)上从事打渔农耕的朱特人先抵不列颠。后来从德国北部来

的使用短剑的撒克逊人在埃撒克斯、苏塞克斯和威塞克斯建立了王国,统治期从五世纪末

至六世纪初。六世纪后半叶,同样来自德国北部的盎格鲁人,在东盎格利亚、麦西亚以及

诺森伯利来定居,同时也他们也把名字给了英国人。这七个主要王国(肯特、埃塞克斯、

苏塞克斯、威塞克斯、东盎格利亚、麦西亚和诺森伯利亚),合称为七王国。

2The early Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity.

最早的盎格鲁—撒克逊人改信基督教。

The Anglo-Saxons brought their own Teutonic religion to Britain. Christianity soon

disappeared, except among the Celts of Cornwall, Wales, Scotland and Ireland. In 597,

Pope Gregory I sent St. Augustine, the Prior of St. Andrew’s Monastery in Rome, to

England to convert the heathen English to Christianity. In 579 St. Augustine became the

first Archbishop of Canterbury. He was remarkably successful in converting the king and

the nobility, but the conversion of the common people was largely due to the missionary

activities of the monks in the north.

盎格鲁—撒克逊人把日耳曼宗教带到了英国。除了康瓦尔、威尔士、苏格兰和爱尔兰中的

克尔特人还信奉基督教外,基督教很快就消失了。公元597,教皇格里高一世把罗马圣安德

鲁修道院的副院长圣奥古斯丁派遣到英格兰,其使命是使异教徒的英国人皈依基督教。公

579年圣奥古丁成为坎特伯雷大主教。在使国王和贵族皈依基督教方面,奥古斯丁特别成

功。但是普通人的皈依很大程度上归功于北部修士们的传教活动。

3The Early Anglo-Saxons make the contributions to the English state.

早期盎格鲁—撒克逊人为英国做出的贡献。

The Anglo-Saxons laid the foundations of the English state. Firstly, they divided the

country into shires, with shire courts and shire reeves, or sheriffs, responsible for

administering law. Secondly, they devised the narrow-strip, three-field farming system

which continued to the 18th century. Thirdly, they also established the manorial system.

Finally, they created the Witancouncil or meeting of the wisemen to advise the king,

the basis of the Privy Council which still exists today.

盎格鲁—撒克逊人为英国国家的形成打下了基础。首先,他们把国家划分为郡,郡法庭和

郡法官、或行政司法长官负责执法。其次,他们设计的窄条三圃田农耕制延用至18世纪。

此外,他们还建立了领地制。最后,他们还创立了议会(贤人会议),向国王提供建议,这就

成为了今天仍存在的枢密院的基础。

IVViking and Danish invasions

北欧海盗和丹麦人的入侵

1The invaders were the Norwegians and the Danes. They attacked various parts of

England from the end of the 8th century. They became a serious problem in the 9th

century, especially between 835 and 878. They even managed to capture York, an

important center of Christianity in 867. By the middle of 9th century, the Viking and the

Danes were posing a threat to the Saxon kingdom of Wessex.

入侵者是挪威人和丹麦人,从8世纪末开始,他们不断袭击英格兰的各个地方。9世纪,尤

其是公元835-878年间已成为严重问题。他们甚至占领了约克郡,公元867年时的基督教中

心。到9世纪中叶,北欧海盗和丹麦人威胁到撒克逊人的威撒克斯王国的安全。

2King Alfred (849-899) and his contributions

艾尔弗雷德国王(849-899)和他所做出的贡献

Alfred was a king of Wessex. He defeated the Danes and reached a friendly agreement

with them in 879. The Danes gained control of the north and east, while he ruled the

rest. He also converted some leading Danes into Christians.

He founded a strong fleet and is known as “ the father of the British navy”. He

reorganized the Saxon army, making it more efficient. He translated a Latin book into

English. He also established schools and formulated a legal system. All this earns him

the title “Alfred the Great.”

阿尔弗雷德是威塞克斯的国王。他打败了丹麦人,并于公元879年与他们达成了友好协议。

协议规定丹麦人控制英格兰北部和西部(丹麦法区),而他统治其他地区。他还劝服一些

丹麦首领成为基督教徒。

他因为建立了强大舰队,而以“英国海军之父”闻名于世。他改组了“弗立德”(撒克逊军队)

,使之更为高效。他将一本拉丁语的书翻译成英语。同时他还建立了学校,并且阐明了法

律制度。所有这一切使他当之无愧于“阿尔弗雷德大王。”的称号。

VThe Norman Conquest (1066)

诺曼征服(公元1066年)

1Reasons for Williams invasion of England after Edwards death.

威廉在爱德华死后入侵英国的原因。

It was said that king Edward had promised the English throne to William, but the Witan

chose Harold as king. So William led his army to invade England. In October 1066,

during the important battle of Hastings, William defeated Harold and killed him. One

Christmas Day, William was crowned king of England, thus beginning the Norman

Conquest of England.

据说,爱德华国王曾答应把英格兰王位传给诺曼底公爵威廉,但是贤人会议挑选了哈罗德

为国王。公元106610月,在哈斯丁斯附近的激烈交锋中,威廉打败了哈罗德军队,同时

哈罗德也在此战争中战死。

2The Norman Conquest and its consequences

诺曼征服及其产生的影响。

The Norman Conquest of 1066 is perhaps the best-known event in English history.

William the Conqueror confiscated almost all the land and gave it to his Norman

followers. He replaced the weak Saxon rule with a strong Norman government. He

replaced the weak Saxon rule with a strong Norman government. So the feudal system

was completely established in England. Relations with the Continent were opened, and

the civilization and commerce were extended. Norman-French culture, language,

manners and architecture were introduced. The Church was brought into closer

connection with Rome, and the church courts were separated from the civil courts.

1066年的诺曼征服也许是英国历史上的最著名事件。征服者威廉几乎没收了所有土地,将

其分发给他的诺曼追随者。他用强有力的诺曼政府代替了软弱的萨克逊政府。于是,封建

制度在英国完全建立。开放了与欧洲大陆的关系,文明和商业得到发展,引进了诺曼—法

国文化、语言、举止和建筑。教会与罗马的联系更为密切,教会法庭与世俗法庭分离。

3The English is a mixture of nationalities of different origins. The ancestors of many

English people were the ancient Angles and Saxons. Some English people are of the

Norman-French origin.

英国是一个集不同民族于一体的国家。许多英国人的祖先是古盎格鲁和撒克逊人。而还有

一些英国人的是诺曼血统。

This is one of the most difficult parts. In this part, I will introduce some Kings in English

history and their reformations. Though we have to remember a lot of things in this part,

we also learn more about English history.

Chapter 3

第三章

The Shaping of the Nation (1066-1381)

英国的形成(公元1066-1381

I. Norman Rule (1066-1381)

诺曼统治(公元1066-1381

1. William's Rule 1066-1087

威廉一世的统治(公元1066-1087

England's feudalism under the rule of William the Conqueror

在威廉统治下的英国封建制度

Under William, the feudal system in England was completely established. According

to this system, the King owned all the land personally. William gave his barons large

estates in England in return for a promise of military service and a proportion of the

land's produce. These estates were scattered far and wide over the country, so that

those who held them could not easily combine to rebel the king. The barons, who had

become William's tenants-in-chief, parceled out land to the lesser nobles, knights and

freemen, also in return for goods and services. At the bottom of the feudal scale were

the villeins or serfs. One peculiar feature of the feudal system of England was that all

landowners must take the oath of allegiancenot only to their immediate lord, but also

to the king.

①在威廉统治下,英国的封建制度得到完全确立。②根据此制度,国王拥有全国所有土地

。③威廉把英国的大片土地分给贵族,条件是换取对方服役和收租。④这些地产分散于各

处,这样土地拥有者就不易联合起来反叛国王。⑤已成为国王土地承租人的贵族又把土地

分配给小贵族、骑士和自由民,同样换取货物和服役。⑥在封建等级底层的是农奴。⑦英

国封建制独有的特色就是,无论是土地承租人还是二佃户,都必须要宣誓效忠于直接领主

,而且要效忠于国王。

2. King Henry II and his reforms

亨利二世国王和他的改革

The ways King Henry II consolidate the monarchy.

亨利二世巩固君主制的途径。

Henry II took some measures to consolidate the monarchy. He forced the Flemish

mercenaries to leave England; recalled grants of Royal lands made by his previous king

Stephen; demolished many castles built in Stephen’s time; strengthened and widened

the powers of his sheriffs and relied for armed support upon a militia composed of

English freemen.

亨利二世采取了一些措施巩固君主制。他迫使弗兰德斯雇佣军离开英国,收回史蒂芬森赠

出皇室土地;拆除几十座史蒂芬森时造德城堡,加强并扩大了他的行政长官们的权力,依

靠由英国自由民组成的民兵获取军事支持。

The ways Henry II reform the courts and the law.

亨利二世对法院及法律进行改革的方式。

King Henry II greatly strengthened the Court and extended its judicial work. He divided

the whole country into six circuits and appointed justices to each. Cases were therefore

heard before the intermittent justices who applied the law impartially. During his reign, a

common law was gradually established in place of the previous laws of the local barons.

He also introduced a new jury system to replace the old ordeal-based trial system.

Besides, he shifted the trial of clergymen charged with criminal offenses from the

Bishop's court to the King's court.

亨利二世大大加强了王家法院,扩展了其司法工作的职权范围。他将全国分为六个审制区

。案件更多地由巡回法官审理,并不偏不倚地使用法律。在他统治时期,逐渐建立起超越

地方领主法律的普遍法。另外,他用陪审员制度代替了旧的残酷的审判制度。他坚持被控

犯有刑事罪的神职人员应由国王法庭审判,而不由主教法庭审判。

IIContents and the significance of the Great Charter

《大宪章》的内容及意义

Great Charter was signed by King John in 1215 under the press of the barons. It

consists of sixty-three clauses. Its important provisions are as follows: (1) no tax should

be made without the approval of the Grand Council; (2) no freemen should be arrested,

imprisoned or deprived of their property; (3) the Church should possess all its rights,

together with freedom of elections; (4) London and other towns should retain their

traditional rights and privileges, and (5) there should be the same weights and measures

throughout the country. Although The Great Charter has long been popularly regarded

as the foundation of English liberties, it was a statement of the feudal and legal

relationships between the Crown and the barons, a guarantee of the freedom of the

Church and a limitation of the powers of the king. The spirit of the Great Charter was the

limitation of the powers of the king, keeping them within the bounds of the feudal law of

the land.

《大宪章》是约翰国王1215年在封建贵族压力下签定的。《大宪章》总共63条,其中最重

要的内容是:(1) 未经大议会同意,不得征税;(2) 只有根据国家有关法律才能逮捕、监禁

自由人以及剥夺他们的财产;(3)教会应享受其所有权利且有选举自由;(4 伦敦和其它

城镇应保留其古时的权力和特权;(5) 全国要使用统一的重量和长度度量衡。尽管人们普遍

认为《大宪章》为英国的自由奠定了基础,但该宪章只是规定国王和贵族之间封建关系和

法律关系的文件,保证了教会的自由,限制了国王权利。《大宪章》的精神是限制国王权

力,使其在英国封建法律允许的范围内活动。

III.The origins of the English Parliament

英国议会的起源

The Great Council is known to be the prototype of the current British Parliament. In

1265, Simon de Montfort summoned the Great Council, together with two knights from

each county and two citizens from each town. It later developed into the House of Lords

and the House of Commons. Its main role was to offer advice. There were no elections

or parties. And the most important part of Parliament was the House of Lords.

大议会是当今英国议会的原型。1265年,西门德孟福尔召开大议会,各县有两名骑士,各

镇有两名市民参加。大议会发展到后来演变成议会,分为上议院和下议院。其作用是咨询

而非决定;也没有选举和政党。议会的最重要的部分是上议院。

IVThe Hundred Years' War and its consequences.

百年战争及其结果

The Hundred Years’ War refers to the war between England and France that lasted

intermittently from 1337 to 1453. The causes of the war were partly territorial and partly

economic. The territorial causes were related with the possession by the English kings of

the large duchy in France, while the French kings coveted this large slice. The economic

causes were connected with cloth manufacturing towns in Flanders, which were the

importer of English wool, but they were loyal to the French king politically. Besides,

England's desire to stop France from giving aid to Scots and a growing sense of

nationalism were the other causes.

The English's being driven out of France is regarded as a blessing for both countries. If

the English had remained in France, the superior size and wealth of France would have

hindered the development of a separate English national identity, while France was

hindered so long as a foreign power occupied so much French territory.

百年战争指1337年到1453年英法之间一场断断续续的战争,战争的起因既有领土因素又有

经济因素。领土起因尤其是与英国国王拥有法国的阿基坦大片公爵领地有密切关系,随着

法国国王势力日增,他们渴望占领这片在他们领土内的土地。经济原因则与弗兰德斯有关

。弗兰德斯地区生产棉布的城镇是英国羊毛的主要进口商,但这些城镇在政治上却效忠法

国国王。其他原因还有英国试图阻止法国帮助苏格兰人,以及不断觉醒的民族意识。

战争的结果:把英国人赶出法国对两个国家都是幸事:若国车人继续留在法国,那么法国

人在领土和财富上所占的优势必然会阻碍分离的英国民族的发展;而法国民族被外国势力

占领了众多的领土,发展更是长期受阻。

V. The Black Death

黑死病

The Black Death is the modern name given to the deadly epidemic disease spread by

rat fleas across Europe in the 14th century. It swept through England in the summer of

1348. It reduced England's population from four million to two million by the end of the

14th century.

The economic consequences of the Black Death were far-reaching. As a result of the

plague, much land was left untended and there was a terrible shortage of labour. The

surviving peasants had better bargaining power and were in a position to change their

serfdom into paid labour. Some landlords, unable or unwilling to pay higher wages, tried

to force peasants back into serfdom. In 1351 the government issued a Statute of

Labourers which made it a crime for peasants to ask for more wages or for their

employers to pay more than the rates laid down by the Justices of the Peace.

黑死病是指由鼠疫蚤传播的致命的淋巴腺鼠疫,是一种流行疾病,在14世纪传播了到欧洲

1348年夏天横扫全英国。英国的人口在14世纪末从400万锐减至200万。

黑死病对经济造成的后果更为深远。鼠疫导致了大片土地无人照管和劳动力极度匮乏。地

主想把耕地变为人力需求较少的牧场。存活的农民处于有利的计价还价地位,从农奴变为

雇佣劳动力。于是一些支付不起或不愿意支付较高工资的地主想方设法迫使农民重返农奴

地位。1351年政府颁布“劳工法令”,规定农民们涨工资的要求,或者是雇主支付比地方官

制订的工资水平要高的工资都是犯罪。

VI. The Peasant Uprising of 1381 and its significance

1381年农民起义及其意义

Armed villagers and townsmen of Kent and Essex, led by Wat Tyler and Jack Straw,

moved on London in June, 1381. The king was forced to accept their demands. Most of

the rebels dispersed and went home, while Tyler and other leaders stayed on for more

rights. Tyler was killed at a meeting with the king.

The uprising was brutally suppressed, but it had far-reaching significance in English

history. First, it directed against the rich clergy, lawyers and the landowners. Second, it

dealt a telling blow to villeinage, and third, a new class of yeomen farmers emerged,

paving the way to the development of capitalism.

13816月,在瓦特 泰勒和杰克 斯特劳领导下,凯特郡和埃塞克斯郡的农民和市民武装起

来发动起义,并向伦敦进发。国王被迫接受了他们的要求。大多数起义农民解散回家,但

泰勒和其他坚决的农民留下来要求得到更多的法律、宗教和政治权利。泰勒在又一次与国

王的会见中被杀死。

尽管起义被血腥镇压,但在英国历史上留下了深远的影响。这次起义具有真实的社会性,

把矛头直接对准了富有的教职人员、律师和地主。这次起义沉重打击了封建农奴制度,产

生了全新的自耕农阶级,为资本主义发展铺设了道路。

Chapter 4

第四章

Transition to the Modern Age (1455-1688)

向现代英国的过渡

I. Transition to the Modern Age (1455-1485)

向现代英国的过渡(1455-1485)

The Wars of Rose

玫瑰战争

The name Wars of the Roses was refer to the battles between the House of Lancaster,

symbolized by the read rose, and that of York, symbolized by the white, from 1455 to

1485. Henry Tudor, descendant of Duke of Lancaster won victory at Bosworth Fireld in

1485 and put ht country under the rule of the Tudors. From these Wars, English

feudalism received its death blow. The great medieval nobility was much weakened.

玫瑰战争是指,从1455年到1485年,以红玫瑰为象征的兰开斯特大家族和以白玫瑰为象征

的约克家族之间战争的普遍接受的名称。1485年,兰开斯特家族的后代亨利都铎取得了博

斯沃恩战役的胜利,建立了都铎王朝。这些战争使英国的封建主义受到致命打击,贵族阶

层受到了削弱。

II. The English Reformation

英国的宗教改革

Henry VIII was above all responsible for the religious reform of the church. There were

three main causes: a desire for change and reform in the church had been growing for

many years and now, encouraged by the success of Martin Luther, many people

believed its time had come; the privilege and wealth of the clergy were resented; and

Henry needed money.

最重要的是,亨利八世负责进行教会的宗教改革。改革原因有三个主要方面:改革教会的

渴望已有多年,现在又受马丁路德成功的鼓舞,许多人认为时机已到;人们痛恨教职人员

的威望和财富;亨利需要钱。

The reform began as a struggle for a divorce and ended in freedom from the Papacy.

Henry VIII wanted to divorce Catherine of Aragon but the Pope refused. Henry’s reforms

was to get rid of the English Church’s connection with the Pope, and to make an

independent Church of England. He made this break with Rome gradually between 1529

and 1534. He dissolved all of England’s monasteries and nunneries because they were

more loyal to the Pope than to their English kings. The laws such as the Act of

succession of 1534 and the Act of Supremacy of 1535 made his reform possible. He

established the church of England as the national church of the country, and he made

himself the supreme head of the church of England.

改革以争取离婚而开始,以脱离教皇而告终。亨利八世欲与阿拉贡的凯瑟琳离婚,但是教

皇拒绝了。亨利改革的目的是摆脱英国教会与教皇的联系,成立独立的英格兰教会。1529

年至1534年间逐渐地与罗马脱离了关系。他解散了所有英国的修道院和修女院,因为后者

对教皇比对英国国王更忠诚。1534年的《继位法》和1535年的《至尊法案》使改革具有了

可行性。1535年他获“英格兰教会最高首脑”之称号。

Henry VIII’s reform stressed the power of the monarch and certainly strengthened Henry’

s position; Parliament had never done such a long and important piece of work before,

its importance grew as a result. His attack on the Pope’s power encouraged many critics

of abuses of the Catholic Church. England was moving away form Catholicism towards

protestaintism.

改革的三大影响:亨利的改革强调了君主权力,自然加强了亨利的地位;议会以往从未做

过如此漫长而重要的工作,自然其重要性也有所加强;他对教皇权力的打击鼓舞许多人批

评指责天主教会,并希望从天主教转向新教。

III. Elizabeth I (1558-1603)

伊莉莎白一世(1558-1603年)

Elizabeth's religious reform and her foreign policy

伊莉莎白的宗教改革和外交政策

Elizabeth's religious reform was a compromise of views. She broke Mary's ties with Rome

and restored her father's independent Church of England, i.e. keeping to Catholic

doctrines and practices but to be free of the Papal control. He religious settlement was

unacceptable to both the extreme Protestants known as Puritans and to ardent

Catholics.

For nearly 30 years Elizabeth successfully played off against each other the two great

Catholic powers, France and Spain, and prevented England from getting involved in any

major European conflict. Through her marriage alliances which were never materialized,

Elizabeth managed to maintain a friendly relationship with France. So England wad able

to face the danger from Spain.

伊莉莎白的宗教改革是各种观点的妥协。她中断玛丽与罗马的关系,恢复父王独立的英格

兰教会,也就是说保持天主教教条及习俗,但不受教皇控制。她的宗教和解既不被极端的

新教徒(即清教徒)所接受,也不为虔诚的天主教徒所接受。

30年的时间,伊莉莎白成功地令两大天主教强国法国和西班牙互相斗杀,从而免于英国

卷入任何主要的欧洲国的冲突。通过她从未具体化的联姻,伊莉莎白设法与法国维持友好

关系,因此英国能面对来自西班牙的危险。

IV. The English Renaissance

英国文艺复兴

Distinctive features of the English Renaissance

英国文艺复兴的特点

1) English culture was revitalized not so much directly by the classics as by

contemporary Europeans under the influence of the classics;

2) England as an insular country followed a course of social and political history which

was to a great extent independent of the course of history elsewhere in Europe;

3) Owing to the great genius of the 14th century poet Chaucer, the native literature was

sufficiently vigorous and experienced in assimilating for foreign influences without being

subjected by them;

4) English Renaissance coincided with the Reformation in England.

英国文艺复兴的五个特点:1)英国文化的复兴并不是直接通过古典作品,崦是通过受古典

作品影响同时代的欧洲人实现的;2)英格兰作为一个与大陆隔离的国家,其社会历史进程

很大程度上独立于欧洲其它国家;3)由于14世纪伟大的天才诗人乔叟的出现,英国本国文

学得以蓬勃发展,能够在吸收外国文学影响的同时,并未处于从属地位;4)英国文艺复兴

文学首先是艺术的,其次才是哲学的和学术的;5)文艺复兴和英格兰的宗教改革在时间上

有所交叉。

VI. The Civil Wars and their consequences

Because of the absolute rule of Charles, the confrontation between Charles I and the

parliament developed into the civil war. The war began on August 22,1642 and ended in

1651. Charles I was condemned to death.

The English Civil War is also called the Puritan Revolution. It has been seen as a conflict

between the parliament and the King, and a conflict between economic interests of the

Crown. The economic interests of the urban middle classed coincided with their religious

( Puritan) ideology while the Crown’s traditional economic interests correspondingly

allied with Anglican religious belief. The English Civil War not only overthrew feudal

system in England but also shook the foundation of the feudal rule in Europe. It is

generally regarded as the beginning of modern world history.

由于查尔斯的“君权神授”统治权,他与议会的对质发展成了内战。战争开始于1642822

日,结束于1651年。最后查尔斯被处死。

英国内战又称为清教徒革命。这是议会和国王间的冲突,也是城市中产阶级的经济利益与

皇室传统经济利益之间的冲突。城市中产阶级经济利益刚好与他们的宗教(清教)思想吻

合,相应地,皇室传统的经济利益则与圣公会教的宗教信仰相结合在一起。英国内战不仅

推翻了英国的封建制度,而且动摇了欧洲封建经济的基础。英国内战通常被看作是现代世

界史的开端。

The Restoration

王政复辟

When Oliver Cromwell died in 1658 and was succeeded by his son, Richard, the regime

began to collapse. One of Cromwell's generals George Monck, occupied London and

arranged for new parliamentary elections. The Parliament thus was elected in 1660

resolved the crisis by asking the late King's son to return from his exile in France as king

Charles II. It was called the Restoration.

1658年奥利弗克伦威尔去世,他的儿子理查德继任护国公,政权立即开始瓦解。克伦威尔

的一位将军乔治蒙克占领伦敦,安排新的议会选举。1660年选出的议会要求上一任国王的

儿子长期流亡地法国回国作国王查尔斯二世,从而解决了危机。这就是所谓的王政复辟。

The Glorious Revolution of 1688

1688年光荣革命

In 1685 Charles II died and was succeeded by his brother James II. James was brought

up in exile in Europe, was a Catholic. He hoped to rule without giving up his personal

religious vies. But England was no more tolerant of a Catholic king in 1688 than 40

years ago. So the English politicians rejected James II, and appealed to a Protestant

king, William of Orange, to invade and take the English throne. William landed in

England in 1688. The takeover was relatively smooth, with no bloodshed, nor any

execution of the king. This was known as the Glorious Revolution.

1685年查尔斯二世去世,由其弟詹姆斯二世继位。詹姆斯二世从小在欧洲流亡长大,是个

天主教徒,他希望不放弃个人宗教信仰统治国家。但是1688的英国已不象40年前那样能容

忍天主教徒当国王了。英国政客反对詹姆斯二世,他们呼吁信奉新教的国王,奥兰治亲王

威谦入侵英国夺取王位。16881115日威廉在托尔比登陆并占领伦敦。这一占领相对平

静,既未流血也未处死国王,所以就称为“光荣革命”。

The Gunpowder Plot of 1605

1605

The Gunpowder Plot of 1605 was the most famous of the Catholic conspiracies. On Nov.

5,1605, a few fanatical Catholics attempted to blow King James and his ministers up in

the House of Parliament where Guy Fawkes had planted barrels of gun-powder in the

cellars. The immediate result was the execution of Fawkes and his fellow-conspirators

and imposition of severe anti-Catholic laws. The long-term result has been an annual

celebration on Nov. 5, when a bonfire is lit to turn a guy and a firework display is

arranged.

1605年的火药阴谋案是最著名的天主教阴谋。1605115日,几个狂热的天主教徒企图

在议会大厦炸死国王和大臣,盖伊福克斯已在地窖放了炸药桶。结果是福克斯和同伙被立

即处死,以及更严厉的反天主教法律的颁发。长斯结果是每年115日举行庆祝仪式,点燃

火堆焚烧盖伊模拟像并燃放烟火。

第五章

The Rise and Fall of the British Empire (1688-1990)

大英帝国的兴衰

I. Whigs and Tories

辉格党人和托利党人

These two party names originated with the Glorious Revolution (1688).

这两个政党名称皆起源于1688年的光荣革命。

The Whig were those who opposed absolute monarchy and supported the right to

religious freedom for Nonconformists. The Whig were to form a coalition with dissident

Tories in the mid-19th century and become the Liberal Party.

辉格党人是指那些反对绝对王权,支持新教徒宗教自由权利的人。辉格党人在19世纪中叶

与持不同意见的托利党人组盟组成自由党。

The Tories were those who supported hereditary monarchy and were reluctant to

remove kings. The Tories were the forerunners of the Conservative Party.

托利党人是指那些支持世袭王权、不愿去除国王的人。托利党是保守党的前身。

I. Agricultural Changes in the Late 18th Century

18世纪末的农业革命

During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the “open-field” system ended when the

Enclosure Act was passed. The movement lasted for centuries. Agricultural enclosure

had good as well as bad results:

18世纪末、19世纪初的农业革命期间,随着《圈地法》的颁布,传统的“开放田地”制结束

。圈地运动持续了将近一个多世纪。农业圈地运动的利弊共存:

1 Farms became bigger and bigger units as the great bought up the small;

由于大农场兼并了小农场,农场成为越来越在的生产单位;

2 More vegetables, more milk and more dairy produce were consumed, and diet

became more varied;

人们消费的蔬菜,牛奶及奶制品越来越多,饮食种类愈加丰富;

3 Enclosure was a disaster for the tenants evicted from their lands by the

enclosures. These peasant farmers were forced to look for work in towns. Enclosure led

to mass emigration, particularly to the New World;

圈地对佃家而言是场灾难,他们被赶出土地,被迫到城镇找工作。圈地运动导致了大规模

的移民,尤其是移民至新大陆。

4 A new class hostility was introduced into rural relationships.

农村关系中产生了新的阶级对立。

II. The Industrial Revolution (1780-1830)

工业革命(1780-1830

1The industrial Revolution refers to the mechanisation of industry and the consequent

changes in social and economic organization in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th

centuries.

工业革命指的是17世纪末、18世纪初英国工业的机械化,以及因此而导致的社会结构和经

济结构的变化。

2Britain was the first country to industrialize because of the following factors:

英国成为第一个工业化的国家,原因如下:

(1) Favourable geopraphical location. Britain was well placed geographically to

participate in European and world trade;

优越的地理位置:英国地理位置优越,适合参与欧洲与世界贸易;

(2) Political stability. Britain had a peaceful society, which, after the 17th century, was

increasingly interested in overseas trade and colonies. International trade brought

wealth to merchants and city bankers. They and those who had done well out of new

farming methods provided capital in large quantities for industralization.

政治局面稳定。17世纪后的英国社会宁静,对海外贸易和殖民地兴趣日增。国际贸易给商

人和城市银行家带来财富,他们加上由于新农作法而发家的人们为工业化提供了大笔资金

(3) Good foundation in economy. The limited monarchy which resulted from the Glorious

Revolution of 1688 ensured that the powerful economic interests in the community could

exert their influence over Government policy.

1688年光荣革命限制了君主的权力,这使得强大的经济利益集团能对议会政策施加影响。

(4) It was a country in which the main towns were never too far from seaports, or from

rivers, which could distribute their products.

英国的主要城镇皆靠近海港或河流,货物运送便利。

(5) Britain had many rivers, which were useful for transport but also for water and steam

power. Britain also had useful mineral resources.

英国许多河流不仅用于交通,还提供水力及蒸汽动力。英国还有可用的矿产资源。

(6) British engineers had sound training as craftsmen.

英国工程师为训练有素的手工艺人。

(7) The inventors were respected. They solved practical problems.

发明家受人尊重,他们解决了实际难题。

(8) Probably laissez faire and “Protestant work ethic” helped.

很可能利益于“放手干”及“新教工作道德”。

(9) England, Scotland, and Wales formed a customs union after 1707 and this included

Ireland after 1807. So the national market was not hindered by internal customs barriers.

1707年后,英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士形成关税联盟,1807年后爱尔兰加入。因此,全国市

场不再受阴于内部的关税障碍。

(10) The enclosures and other improvements in agriculture made their contributions by

providing food for the rising population, labour for the factories, and some of the raw

materials needed by industry.

圈地运动和其它农业改良为增加的人口提供了粮食,为工厂提供了劳动力,为工业提供了

所需的一些原材料。

3Typical examples of the inventions during the Industrial Revolution

工业革命中一些重大创新

(1) John Kay’s flying shuttle in 1733;

1733年,约翰凯的飞梭;

(2) James Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny in 1766;

1766年詹姆士哈格里夫斯詹妮纺纱机;

(3) Richard Arkwright’s waterframe in 1769;

1769年理查德阿克赖特的水力纺织机;

(4) Samuel Crompton’s mule in 1779

1779年塞缪尔克朗普顿的走绽纺纱机;

(5) Edmund Cartwright’s power loom in 1784;

1784年爱德蒙卡特莱特发明的力织机;

(6) James Watt’s steam engine in 1765.

1765年詹姆斯瓦特的高效蒸汽机。

4Consequences of the industrial Revolution

工业革命的结果

1 Britain was by 1830 the workshop of the world;

英国成为了“世界工场”;

2 Towns grew rapidly and became the source of the nations wealth.

城镇迅速兴起,成为国家财富的源泉。

3 Mechanization destroyed the livelihood of those who could not invest in it . The

working men worked and lived in a appalling conditions.

机械化摧毁了不能投入其中的人们的生活。工人们在可怕的条件下劳动与生活。

4 The industrial revolution created the industrial working class, the proletariat, and it

later led to trade unionism.

工业革命产生了工人阶级,即无产阶级。后来形成了工会制度。

III. The Chartist Movement (1836-1848)

宪章运动(1836-1848

1. Reasons for parliamentary reforms.

议会改革的原因

(1) Power was monopolized by the aristocrats.

权力由贵族操纵。

(2) Representation of town and country, and North and South was unfair.

城镇和农村,北方和南方的代表权极不平等。

(3) There were also various so-called rotten or pocket boroughs.

还有各种称之为衰败或口袋选区的选区。

2Three Reform Bills

三个改革法案

Between 1832 and 1884 three Reform Bills were passed.

1832年至1884年间通过了三个改革法案。

a) The Reform Act of 1832 (also called the “Greater Charter of 1832) abolished “rotten

boroughs”, and redistributed parliamentary seats more fairly among the growing tows. It

also gave the vote to many householders and tenant’s, based on the value of their

property.

1832年的《改革法案》(也称为1832年的大宪章)废除了“衰败选区”;在新兴城镇中较为

公平地重新分配了议席;以财产价值为基础给予许多屋主和佃家。

b) The New Poor Law of 1834 forced the poor people into work houses instead of giving

them sufficient money to survive in their own homes.

1834年的新贫困法强迫穷人进工厂,而没有给他们足够的钱在自己的家里生存。

3A Peoples Charter

人民宪章

There was widespread dissatisfaction with the Reform Act of 1832 and the New Poor

Law. In 1836, a group of skilled workers and small shopkeepers formed the London

Working Men’s Association. They drew up a charter of political demands (a People’s

Charter) in 1838, with the intention of presenting it to Parliament. It had six points: (1)the

vote for all adult males; (2)voting by secret ballot; (3)equal electoral districts; (4)abolition

of property qualifications for members of Parliament; (5)payment of members of

Parliament; (6)annual Parliaments, with a General Election every June.

1832年的《改革法案》和《新贫困法》引起了普遍不满。1836年,一群技术工人和小店主

组成伦敦工厂联盟。他们于1838年起草了有关政治要求的宪章(人民宪章),想把它呈送

给议会。宪章有六点内容:(1)所有成年男子都有选举权;(2)进行无记名投票;(3

平等选区;(4)议员选举废除财产资格要求;(5)议员应有报酬;(6)议会每年六月进

行大选。

4Results of the Chartist Movement

宪章运动的结果。

Chartism failed because of its weak and divided leadership, and its lack of coordination

with trade-unionism. The working class still immature, without the leadership of a political

party armed with correct revolutionary theory. The Chartist movement was, however, the

first nationwide working class movement and drew attention to serious problems. The 6

points were achieved very gradually over the period of 1858-1918, although the sixth

has never been practical. Lenin said that Chartism was “the first broad, really mass,

politically formed, proletarian revolutionary movement.”

由于领导层的软弱和分歧,由于缺少与工会的协调,宪章运动失败了。当时的工人阶级还

未成熟,没有正确的革命理论武装的政党领导。但是,宪章运动是第一次全国范围的工人

阶级运动,引起了对许多严重问题的关注。在18581918年间,六项要求逐渐达到,尽管

第六项从未成为现实。列宁说宪章运动是“第一个广泛的、真正群众参与的,有政治组织形

式的无产阶级革命运动。”

I. Trade Unions and the Labour Party

工会和工党

1. The Trade Union Act of 1871 legalized the trade unions and gave financial security.

1871年通过的《工会法》使工会合法化并给其财政保障。

2. The Labor Party had its origin in the Independent Labor Party(ILP), which was formed

in January, 1893. In 1900, representatives of trade unions, the ILP, and a number of

small socialist societies set up the Labor Representation Committee (LRC). The LRC

changed its name to the Labor Party for the general election called for in 1906.

工党起源于独立工党,于18931月成立。1900年,工会代表,独立工党和许多小型社会

主义社团一起成立了工人代表委员会。1906年的大选迫使工人代表委员会及时更名为工党

II. Colonial Expansion

殖民扩张

1. The growth of dominions

自治领的兴起

English colonial expansion began with the colonization of Newfoundland in 1583.

Encouraged by Britain’s control of the seas, especially by the rising tide of emigration,

British colonialists stepped up their expansion to Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, in

the late 18th and the early 19th centuries. By 1900, Britain had built up a big empire, “on

which the sun never set”. It consisted of a vast number of protectorates, Crown colonies,

spheres of influence, and self-governing dominions. It included 25% of the world’s

population and area.

英国殖民扩张开始于1583年纽芬兰的殖民化。在18世纪末、19世纪初,受到海外移民浪潮

的鼓舞,英国殖民者很快加他们的扩张到加拿大、澳大利亚、新西兰。到1900年英国已建

立了“日不落”的大英帝国,包括受保护国、英国殖民地、势力范围和自治领,占世界人口与

面积的25%

Canada was ceded to Britain by the 1763 Treaty of Paris. French rights were

guaranteed by the Quebec Act of 1774. The Canada Act of 1791 divided Canada into

Upper Canada where the British had settled, and Lower Canada populated by the

French. The British North America Act of 1867 established Canada as a dominion.

1763年签订的《巴黎条约》将加拿大割让给英国。1774年的《魁北克法》保证了法国的权

益。之后,1791年《加拿娃哈哈》把加拿大分为上加拿大和下加拿大,前者是英国人的定

居地,后者是法国人的居住点。1867年《英国北美法案》确定加拿大为自治领。

English began to transport convicts to Australia in 1788. Free settlement began in 1816,

and no convicts were sent to Australia after 1840. The gold rushes (1851-1892) brought

more people to Australia, and in 1901 the six self-governing wer united in one

dominion-the independent Commonwealth of Australia.

1788年英国人开始把囚犯流放到澳大利亚。1816年开始可以自由定居,1840年后囚犯不

再流放到澳大利亚。1851年至1892年的淘金热使更多的人拥到澳洲。1901年,六个自治

领统一为一个自治领—澳大利亚独立联邦。

New Zealand became a separate colony of Britain in 1841, achieved self-government in

1857, became a dominion under the British crown in 1907 and was made completely

independent in 1931.

1841年新西兰. The Conquest of India

征服印度

The British East India Company established in 1600. By 1819 the British conquest of

most India was almost complete. After the muting of Bengal army in 1857, the control of

India passed to the British Crown and Queen Victoria became Empress of India in 1877.

1600年英国东印度公司的建立是经济渗透的实例。到1819年英国对印度的征服已基本完成

1857年东印度公司孟加拉军队的当地士兵发动兵变后,1858年印度改由英国君主统治。

1877年维多利来女王正式成为印度女皇。

2. The Scramble for Africa

对非洲的掠夺

At the beginning of the 19th century British possessions were confined to forts and slave

trading posts on the west coast. Over the 19th century the interior of Africa was

gradually discovered and colonized by Europeans. Britain led the way in the race. Apart

from the colonies in the South and West, Britain was also involved in the North East in

Egypt and the Sudan.

19世纪初英国的占领地局限于西海岸的堡垒和奴隶交易点。整个19世纪欧洲人逐渐发现并

殖民了非洲内陆。在这场瓜分竞赛中英国占了较大的优势。除了不断扩张的南部和西部殖

民地后,英国又凯觎东北的埃及和苏丹。

3. Aggression against China

侵略中国

In 1840, the Opium War broke out between Britain and China. Since then, Britain

gradually invaded many coastal areas and imposed a series of unequal treaties upon

China.

1840年英国和中国发动了鸦片战争。从那时起,英国逐渐侵略了中国的许多沿海城市,并

签定了许多不平等条约。

VI. Twentieth Century

二十世纪

1. Britain and the First World War

英国和第一次世界大战

The Work War I was fought from 1914 to 1918 primarily between two European Power

blocs: “the Central power”. Germany and Austria-Hungary, and the “Allies”, Britain,

France and Russia. During the war, the Britain lost much. Apart from the loss of

manpower, there had been considerable disruption of the economy and society. Out of

the war settlement came the establishment of the league of Nations.

第一次世界大战是从1914年至1918年,战争主要在两大欧洲集团间进行:“同盟国”,包括

德国和奥匈帝国,和“协约国”,包括英国、法国和俄罗斯。一战中英国损失惨重。除了劳动

力损失,还有巨大的经济与社会瓦解。

2. Britain Between the Two World Wars

两次世界大战期间的英国

The effects of the New York Stock Market Crash of 1929 soon spread throughout

Europe and by 1931 Britain was entering the Great depression.

1929年纽约股票交易所崩溃的影响迅速波及欧洲,到1931年英国进入经济大萧条。

3. Britain and the Second World War

英国与第二次世界大战

As Adolf Hitler and Nazism showed off their aggressive momentum in Europe,

Chamberlain, the Prime Minister, found his policy of appeasement of German

aggression was no longer tenable, and was forced to declare war on Germany on

September 3,1939.

当阿道夫希特勒及纳粹主义显示他们对欧洲的侵略意图时,首相张伯伦发现他的绥靖政策

已站不住脚,只得于193993日对德宣战。

4. Postwar Britian

战后的英国

(1) One of the most far-reaching consequences of the War was that it hastened the end

of Britain’s empire.

二战最为深远的结果之一是加速了大英帝国的瓦解。

(2) In 1952 Princess Elizabeth was crowned Queen Elizabeth II. Many people through

television saw the ceremony.

1952年伊莉莎白公主加冕成为伊莉莎白女王二世。新发明的电视使许多人看到了加冕仪式

的过程。

(4) In January 1973, Britain became a full member of the European Economic

Community which was still called the Common Market in 1973. Britain witnessed the first

oil shock in 1973.

19731月,英国终于成为欧洲经济共同体的正式成员国。1973年仍称为共同市场。1973

年英国经历了第一次石油禁运。

(5) Mrs Thatcher

撒切尔主义

Thatcherism referred to the policies put forward by Margaret Thatcher, the first woman

prime minister in England in 1979. The main contents of her policies included the return

to private ownership of state-owned industries, the use of monetarist policies to control

inflation, the weakening of trade unions the strengthening of the role of market forces in

the economy, and an emphasis on law and order. To some extent her program was

successful and she led one of the most remarkable periods in the British economy.

1979年撒切尔夫人成为英国第一任女首相。她提出的政策被为“撒切尔主义”。其内容包括

国有工业私有化,采用货币主义政策以控制通货膨胀,削弱工会的影响,加强市场因素在

经济中的作用,强调法律和秩序。在一定程度上讲,她的计划是成功的。她领导英国经济

度过了一段最繁华的时期之一。

成为独立殖民地,1857年实现自治,1907年成为英皇属下的自治领,1931年完全独立。

Chapter 6 第六章

The Economy 英国经济

I. The Evolution of the British Economy since the War

The evolution of the British economy since WWII falls into three periods:

二战后英国经济发展可分为三个阶段:

(1) Steady development in the 50s and 60s: The British economy in this period is

characterized by slow but steady growth, low unemployment and great material

prosperity with rising standards of consumption.

1)战后50-60年代平稳发展时期。其主要特点是经济缓慢而持续增长,失业率低,物质

丰富,人民消费水平不断增长。

(2) Economic recession in the 70s: In the 1970s among the developed countries, Britain

maintained the lowest growth rate and the highest inflation rate, and the high record of

trade deficits.

270年代经济滞胀。在70年代,英国在所有的发达资本主义国家中,始终保持最低经

济增长率,最高的通货膨胀率,和最高的贸易赤字纪录。

(3) Economic recovery in the 80s: An outstanding feature of the economic recovery in

the 80s was its length, lasting seven years. Another was the improved financial position

of the government, with stronger current account of the balance of payments.

380年代经济复苏。一个显著特点是时间长,复苏持续了7年。另一个特点是国际收支

大大盈余,政府金融地位最高。

Measures taken by Mrs. Thatcher's government to improve the economy

Mrs. Thatcher's government took numerous measures to improve the efficiency of the

economy during the past decade, using both macroeconomic and microeconomic

policies.

撒切尔政府运用宏观经济政策和微观经济政策,采取许多措施提高经济效益。

(1) Macroeconomic measures were directed towards bringing down the rate of inflation

and achieving price stability.

宏观经济政策直接针对降低通货膨胀率和维持物价稳定。

(2) Microeconomic policies were aimed at working with the grain of market forces by

encouraging enterprise, efficiency and flexibility.

微观经济政策旨在通过鼓励实业,效率和灵活性共同努力提高市场竞争力。

Reasons for the British coal mining is called a “sick” industry today.

Reasons for the British coal mining is called a “sick” industry today.

英国煤矿被称为“生病”工业的原因。

Today the coal industry in Britain is on the declinethe number of miners, collieries and

the total output have been falling.

如今的英国煤矿业衰退,从而导致矿工、煤矿的数量和总产量都大大下降。

The reasons for the decline are as follows: exhaustion of old mines, costly operations of

extraction, poor old equipment, little investment, fall in demand due to imports of cleaner,

cheaper and more efficient fuels, etc.

煤工业衰退的原因包括:老煤矿的枯竭,昂贵的提炼费用,破旧的设备,极少的投资,由

于进口更干净、更便宜、更高效的燃料导致的需求下降等等。

Britain’s oil and natural gas

英国的石油和天然气

Natural gas was discovered in 1965 and oil in 1970 under the North Sea. Today Britain

is not only self-sufficient in oil but also has a surplus for export. The transport and

domestic heating systems mostly depend on oil. So does the food supply, because most

agriculture is highly mechanized. Modern farming requires things which are all oil-based.

1965年及1970年在北海发现天然气和石油。今天英国的石油不仅能自给自足,还有盈余

供出口。交通和家庭供热系统主要依靠石油,因为大部分农业的高度机械化,食品供应也

靠石油。

Main problems associated with Britain’s iron and steel industry today.

如今英国钢铁工业的主要问题。

British iron and steel industry is declining for the following reasons:

英国钢铁工业衰退的原因如下:

1. Local supplies of iron ore have become exhausted;

当地贮备枯竭;

2. Old fashioned furnaces for making coke cannot recover valuable by-products;

他们生产焦炭的老式炉不能提取有价值的副产品,

3. Blast furnaces, steelworks, and rolling mills are often separated from each other and

thus cannot perform as well as more compact operation;

高炉、钢铁厂和轧钢厂经常分开,导致不如更紧凑的企业出效益;

4. Many steelworks have to be closed down, causing major unemployment in an area.

许多钢铁厂倒闭,导致该地区的大批人失业。

The main textile producing regions of Britain are the East Midlands, Yorkshire,

Humberside, and Northern Ireland.

New Industries

New industries include microprocessors and computers, biotechnology and other

high-tech industries. There are three areas in Britain which have seen some high-tech

industrial growth: (1).the area between London and South Wales, (2).the Cambridge

area of East Anglia and (3).the area between Glasgow and Edinburgh in Scotland. The

third area is the most spectacular of the three and is now often referred to as the

Silicon Glen”. By the end of 1985 half of Britain’s microchip output was estimated to

have come from Scotland.

英国主要纺织基地是现在的中东部,约克郡和汉伯塞德郡及北爱尔兰。

The reasons behind the decline of Britain's textile industry are:

英国纺织业的衰退原因如下:

(1) Exports of textiles have not competed well with those of other foreign producers who

have managed to produce cheaper goods.

纺织品出口不能很好地与设法生产出更便宜商品的国外产家竞争。

(2) There has been a rise in cheaper imports of textiles to Britain from foreign

producers.

英国增加了从外国产家进口更廉价纺织品。

(3) Poor and outdated management decisions have caused problem.

薄弱及过时的管理决策导致许多问题。

(4) Substitutions of human-made fibres have been made for natural fibres.

人造纤维代替品已取代了天然纤维。

(5) An improvement of output per worker has been achieved, due to mechanization.

由于机械化,每个工人的生产量有了提高。

第七章

Government and Administration

英国政府机构

The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy, the head of state is a king or a queen.

The United Kingdom is governed, in the name of the Sovereign by His or Her Majesty’s

Government. The System of parliamentary government is not based on a written

constitution, the British constitution is not set out in any single document. It is made up of

statute law, common law and conventions. The Judiciary determines common law and

interprets statutes.

联合王国是君主立宪制国家,国家的首脑是国王或女王。联合王国以君的名义,由国王或女王

陛下政府治理。英国的议会制度并不是基于成文宪法,英国宪法不由单一文件构成,而由成文

,习惯法和惯例组成。司法部门裁定习惯法或解释成文法。

IThe Monarchy

君主制

1.Elizabeth II, her title in the United Kingdom is “Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of

God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and Her Other Realms

and Territories, Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith.

伊莉莎白二世,她的全称是“上帝神佑,大布列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国以及她的其他领土和

领地的女王,英联邦元首,国教保护者伊莉莎白二世。”

2.The Queen is the symbol of the whole nation. In law, She is head of the executive, an

integral part of the legislature, head of the judiciary, the commander-in-chief of all the

armed forces and the “supreme governor” of the Church of England. She gives Royal

Assent to Bills passed by parliament.

女王是国家的象征。从法律上讲,她是行政首脑,立法机构的组成部分,司法首脑,全国

武装部队总司令,英国国教“至高无上”的领袖。她任命首相和重要的政府官员。对议会通过

的法案给予御准。

3.The monarch actually has no real power. The monarch’s power are limited by law and

Parliament. Constitutional monarchy began after the Glorious Revolution in 1688.

君主政体实际已无实权。它的权力受限于法律和议会。君主立宪制是从1688年的光荣革命

后开始。

IIIParliament

议会

1.The United Kingdom is a unitary, not a federal, state. Parliament consists of the

Sovereign, the House of Lords and the House of Commons.

英国是中央集权国家,而不是联邦制国家。议会由君主,上议院和下议院组成。

2.The main functions of Parliament are: (1) to pass laws; (2) to provide, by voting for

taxation, the means of carrying on the work of government; (3) to examine government

Policy and administrations, including proposal for expenditure; and (4) to debate the

major issues of the day.

议会的主要作用是:(1)通过立法;(2)投票批准税为政府工作提供资金;(3)检查政

府政策和行政管理,包括拨款提议;(4)当天的议题辩论。

3.The House of Lords is made up of the Lords Spiritual and the Lords Temporal. The

main function of the House of Lords is to bring the wide experience of its members into

the process of lawmaking. In other words, the non-elected House is to act as a chamber

of revision, complementing but not rivaling the elect House.

贵族院(上议院)由神职贵族和世俗贵族组成。它的主要作用是用议员的丰富经验帮助立

法。换而言之,非选举的上议院是修正议院,补充而非反对由选举产生的下议院。

4.The House of Common is elected by universal adult suffrage and consists of 651

Members of Parliament (MPs). It is in the House of Commons that the ultimate authority.

下议院(平民院)由成人普选产生,由651名议员组成。下议院拥有最终立法权。

5.Britain is divided 651 constituencies. Each of the constituencies returns one member

to the House of Commons. A general Election must be held every five years and is often

held at more frequent intervals.

英国被划分为651个选区,每个选区选一名下议院议员。大选必须五年举行一次,但经常不

到五年就进行一次选举。

6.Britain has a number of parties, but there are only two major parties. These two parties

are the Conservative Party and the Labour Party. Since 1945, either the Conservative

Party or the Labour Party has held power. The party which wins sufficient seats at a

General Election to command a majority of Government. The leader of the majority party

is appointed Prime Minister. The party which wins the second largest number of seats

becomes the Official Opposition, with its own leader and “shadow cabinet ”. The rule of

Opposition is to help the formulation of policy. Criticizes the Government and debate with

the Government.

英国有很多政党,但有两个主要的政党—保守党和工党。从1945年以来,两党一直轮流执

政,在大选中获多数议席因而在下议院拥有多数支持者的政党组建政府,多数党领袖由君

主任命为首相。获得第二多数议席的政党则正式成为“反对党”,有自己的领袖和影子内阁。

反对党的目的是帮助制定政策,它可以经常给政府提出批评性的建议和修正议案。

III.The Cabinet and Ministry

内阁和内阁部长

1. The Prime Minister presides over the Cabinet, is responsible for the allocation of

functions among ministers and informs the Queen at regular meetings of general

business of the Government. Cabinet members hold meetings under the chairmanship

of the Prime Minister for a few hours each week to decide Government policy on major

issues.

首相主持内阁,负责分配大臣们的职能,在定期会见女王时向女王报告政府事务。内阁在

首相的主持下,每周开会几小时,以决定在重大问题上政府的政策。

2. Ministers are responsible collectively to Parliament for all Cabinet decisions; individual

Ministers are responsible to Parliament for the work of their department.

内阁的所有决定由大臣集体向议会负责,各大臣又为各自部门的工作向议会负责。

IVThe Privy Council

枢密院

1. The Privy Council was formerly the chief source of executive power in the state and

give private advice to the King. So the Privy Council was also called the King’s Council in

history. Today its role is largely formal, advising the sovereign to approve certain

government decrees.

枢密院原来是政府行政权力的源泉,给君主提供“私人”建议。它在历史上也称为国王议会。

今天它的主要作用是礼节性的,如建议君主批准政府的法令。

2. Its membership is about 400, and includes all Cabinet ministers, the speaker of the

House of Common and senior British and Commonwealth statement.

它的主要成员有400人左右,包括内阁阁员,下议院院长及英国,英联邦的高级政治家等。

VGovernment Department and the Civil Service

政府各部和公务员部

1. The principal Government department main includes: the Treasury, the House of

office, the Foreign and Commonwealth office, the Ministry of Defense…

主要的政府部门包括:财务部,内务部,外交部,国防部等。

2. Members of the Civil Service are called Civil Services. They staff government

departments. Civil Servants are recruited mainly by competitive examination. Civil

servants do not belong to any political party. Changes of Government do not involve

changes in departmental staff, There are about 541800 civil servants in Britain now.

文职人员部的成员被成为公务员。公务员主要是通过竞争考试录用。公务员部门不属于任

何政党,政府的变更并不影响部门职员的变更。英国现约有541800名公务员。

VILocal Government

地方政府部门

1. There are two main tiers of local authority throughout England and Wales: counties

and the smaller districts. Now, England and Wales are divided into 53 counties which are

sub-divided into 369 districts.

英格兰和威尔士实行两级地方政府制—郡和比郡小的区。现在英格兰和威尔士分为53个郡

,郡下分为369个区。

2. Greater London is divided into 32 boroughs.

大伦敦被分为32个行政区。

第八章

Justice and the law

法律与司法机构

There is no single legal system in the United Kingdom. A feature common to all systems

of law in the United Kingdom is that there is no complete code. The sources of law

include (1) statutes; (2) a large amount of “unwritten” or common law; (3) equity law; (4)

European Community. Another common feature is the distinction made between criminal

law and civil law.

联合王国不实行完全统一的法律制度。联合王国所有法律制度的一个共同特点是没有以部

完整的法典。法典来源包括:(1)成文法;(2)大量的“不成文法”或习惯法;(3)衡平

法;(4)欧共体法。另一个共同的特点是刑法和民法之间的区别。

ICriminal Proceedings

刑事诉讼程序

1. In England and Wales, once the police have charged a person with a criminal offence,

the crown Prosecution Service assumes control of the case reviews the evidence to

decide whether to prosecute.

在英格兰和威尔士,一旦警察指控某人犯有刑事罪,皇家检察总署就要接管此案,并独立

地审核证据以决定是否起诉。

2. In Britain all criminal trial are held in open count because the criminal law presumes

the innocence of the accused until he has been proved guilty beyond reasonable doubt.

The prosecution and the defense get equal treatment. No accused person has to

answer the question of the police before trial. He is not compelled to give evidence in

count. Every accused person has the right to employ a legal adviser to conduct his

defense. If he can not afford to pay, he may be granted aid at public expense. In criminal

trial by jury, the judge passes sentence, but the jury decided the issue of guilt or

innocence. The jury composed of 12 or ordinary people. If the verdict of the jury can not

be unanimous, it must be a majority.

在英国,所有的刑事审判都在法院公开进行。因为刑法认为,在消除合理怀疑证明被告有

罪之前,他是无辜的。原告与被告同样平等,审判时被告不必回答警察的问题,不许强迫

被告提供证据。每位被告都有权雇佣律师为其辩护。如果他不能支付律师费,可以用公用

费用提供帮助。在由陪审团进行的刑事审判中,法官判刑,但陪审团决定是否有罪。陪审

团一般由12人组成。如果陪审团不能做出一致判决,也必须是多数决定。

3.A verdict of “ not guilt” means acquittal for the accused, who can never again be

charged with that specific crime.

“无罪”裁决意味着被告无罪,并且永远不得再以此罪名对其指控。

II. Criminal Courts

刑事法庭

1. Criminal Courts in England and Wales

英格兰和威尔士的刑事法庭

Magistrates’ Courts which try summary offences and “either way” offences. A

magistrates’ court, which is open to the public and the media, usually consists of three

unpaid “lay” magistrates-known as justices of the peace-who are advised on point of law

and procedure by a legally qualified assistant. A Magistrates’ court sits without a jury.

治安(警事)法庭,负责审理判决犯罪,也审理“任意方式”罪行。治安法庭对公众和媒体公

开,通常由三位无薪的“外行”地方官——地方治安官组成,由懂得法律知识的书记员和助手

给他们提供法律规定和程序方面的建议。治安法庭审察时没有陪审团。

Youth Court which try most cases involving people under 18.

青少年法庭,负责审理18岁以下青年的大多数案件。

The Crown Court tries the most serious offences and ‘either way” offences referred to it

by magistrates. The Crown Court is presided over by High Court judges, full-time circuit

Judges and part-time Recorders England and Wales are divided into six circuits for the

purpose of hearing criminal case. Each circuit is divided into areas containing one or

more centers of High Court and Crown Court.

皇家刑事法庭。负责审理最严重的罪行和由地方法官提交的“任意方式”罪行。皇家刑事法庭

由高级法院法官,全职巡回法官和兼任刑事法官主持。为审理刑事案,英格兰和威尔士被

分为六个巡回区,每个巡回区又分区域,每个区域有一个或多个高级法庭和皇家刑事法庭

2. Criminal courts in Scotland

苏格兰的刑事法庭

There are three criminal courts in Scotland.1the High Court of Justiciary;(2) the

sheriff court;(3) the district court. Scotland has two types of criminal procedure, know as

solemn procedure and summary procedure. In solemn procedure, a defendant is tried

by a judge sits without a jury.

英格兰有三种刑事法院:(1)高级法院;(2)郡法院;(3)区法院。英格兰有两种刑事

诉讼:庄重诉讼和即决诉讼。庄重诉讼里,被告由陪审团和法官审理。在即决诉讼中,法

官独自审理,不用陪审团。

3. Criminal courts in Northern Ireland

北爱尔兰的刑事法庭

Cases involving minor summary offences are heard by magistrates’ courts presided over

by a full-time legally qualified resident magistrate. County courts are primarily civil law

courts. The Crown Court deals with criminal trails on indictment.

涉及轻微即决犯罪的案件由治安法庭听审,法庭由全职的法律合格的常驻治安法官主持。

郡法庭主要是民事法庭。皇家刑事法庭根据起诉进行刑事审判.

IIICivil Courts

民事法庭

1. Civil Courts in England and Wales

英格兰和威尔士的民事法庭

Magistrates’ Courts have limited civil jurisdiction, The main courts of civil jurisdiction are

County Courts, the High Court deals with the more complicated civil case. Its jurisdiction

covers mainly civil and some criminal cases. It has three divisions: (1) the family Division;

(2) the Chancery Division; (3) the Queen’s Bench Division.

治安法庭只有一定的民事审判权。主要行使民事司法权的是民事法院,高等法院处理更为

复杂的民事案。主要包括民事案和一些刑事案,高等法院有三个分支:(1)家事庭;(2

)娃哈哈官庭;(3)王室庭。

2. Civil Courts in Scotland

苏格兰的民事法庭

The Civil Courts are the sheriff court and the Court of session.

民事法院包括郡法院和巡回法院(最高中心法院)。

3. Civil Courts in Northern Ireland

北爱尔兰的民事法院

County Court are primarily civil law courts. The magistrates’ court also deal with certain

limited classes of civil cases. The high Court of Justice the superior civil law court.

郡法院主要是民事法院。治安法庭也审理某些有限类型的民事案件。高等法院就是高级民

事法院。

IV. The Judiciary

司法机构

There is no ministry of justice in the United Kingdom. Central responsibility lies with the

Lord Chancellor the Home Secretary and the Attorney General. In England and Wales,

lay magistrates are appointed on behalf of the Crown by the Lord Chancellor who is

advised by committees in each county. The Lord Chancellor recommends the High Court

and circuit judges. The highest judicial appointments and made by the Queen on the

advice of the Prime Minister.

英国没有司法机构。中央政府的司法工作主要由娃哈哈官内政大臣和检察总长负责。在英

格兰和威尔士,娃哈哈官根据各部委员会的建议任命外行人员为治安官。娃哈哈官推荐高

等法官和巡回法官。最高级别的司法官任命由女王根据首相的建议做出。

V. Police

警察

The police service for United Kingdom is organized and controlled on a local basis under

the Home Secretary and the Scottish and Northern Ireland Secretaries. London’s

Metropolitan Police Force is directly under the control of Home Secretary. Police officers

are not allowed to join a trade union or go on strike. They do not normally carry firearms.

在内政大臣和苏格兰及北爱尔兰国务大臣的指导下,英国警察分地组建,并以地方管理为

基础。但伦敦警察署直接与内政大臣管辖。警察不得加入工会或罢工。他们通常不佩带手

枪。

VI. Treatment of offenders

对违法者的处理

The chief aims of the penal system are to deter the potential lawbreaker and to reform

the convicted offender.

刑罚制度的主要目的是阻止潜在的违法者,并改造已判的违法者。

Capital punishment ( a sentence of death ) for murder has been abolished in the U.K,

through proposal for its reinstatement are regularly debated by Parliament, and it

remains the penalty for treason and piracy.

英国已废除对谋杀罪的死刑,但议会仍经常辩论要恢复死刑,判国罪和海盗罪仍可判死刑

第九章

Social Affairs

英国社会

I. Health and Social Services

全国医疗保健计划

1. Britain is regarded as a welfare state. This system is funded out of national insurance

contributions and taxation. In Britain the term applies mainly to the National Health

Service (NHS), national insurance and social security.

英国被认为是福利制度的国家。此制度的所需资金来源于全国保险税和赋税。在英国,这

主要是指国民保健制度,国民保险和社会保障制度。

2. The National Health Service provides for every resident, regardless of income, a full

range of medical services. The service was established in the U.K. in 1948. Over 82 per

cent of the cost of the health service in Great Britain id funded out of general taxation.

The rest is met from: (1) the NHS element of National Insurance contributions; (2)

charges towards the cost of certain items such as drugs prescribed by family doctors,

and general dental treatment; (3) other receipts, including land sales and the proceeds

of income generation schemes.

不管个人收入如何,国民保健制度为每个居民提供全面医疗服务。英国于1948年确立此制

度。英国国民保健制度82%以下的费用来自普通税收,其他部分来自(1)国民保险金中的

国民保险金部分;(2)象对家庭一生开的药单和普通牙科治疗所收的费用;(3)其他收

入,包括出售土地和增收计划的收益。

3. There are proportional charges for most types of HNS dental treatment, including

examinations. Sight test are free to children. No one is liable to be charged by the

National Health Service for treatment in an accident, emergency or for an infectious

disease. Central government is directly responsible for the NHS, which is administered

by a range of local health authorities and health boards throughout the U..

国民保健制度中多数牙科治疗都要收取一定比例的费用,包括检查费。视力检查对儿童免

费。国民保健制度对事故,急诊或传染病的治疗不收费,中央政府直接负责国民保健制度

,由全国各地的保健机构和卫生委员会实施

4. The family health services are those given to patients by doctors, dentists, opticians

and pharmacists. In order to obtain the benefits of the NHS a person must normally be

registered on the list of a general practitioner (GP, sometimes knows as a “family doctor”

).

家庭保健服务由医生、牙医、眼科大夫和药剂师提供给病人。为获得国民保健制度的服务

,人们必须在普通开业医生的名册上注册。

5. A full range of hospital services is provided by district general hospital. There are also

specialist hospital or units for children, people suffering from mental illness, those with

learning disabilities, and elderly people, and for the treatment of specific diseases.

地区普通医院提供全面的医院服务。也有为儿童,精神病人,有学习障碍者,老人和特殊

病人开设的专门医院或病区。

6. The National Health Service is the largest single employer of labour in the U.K. NHS

has suffered from underfunding in recent decades, as a result of which many better-off

people have been turning to private medical health care.

国民保健制度是英国最大的用人机构。近几十年来,因为资金不足,许多比较富裕的人正

逐渐转向私人的医疗保健机构。

7. Personal social services in Britain assist elderly people, disabled people, people with

learning disabilities or mental illness, children, and families facing special problems.

These statutory service are provided by local government social services authorities.

在英国,个人社会服务向老人,残疾人,有学习障碍者,精神病人,有特殊家庭困难的人

等。地方政府社会服务委员会提供法定援助。

II. social Security

社会保险

1. The social security system is designed to secure a basic standard of living for people

in financial need. Nearly a third of government expenditure is devoted to the social

security programme which provides financial help for people who are elderly, sick,

disabled, unemployed, widowed, bringing up children or on very low incomes.

社会保险制度设立的目的是保障经济困难的人们的基本生活水平,政府开支的近三分之一

用于社会保险计划。此计划给老人,病人,残疾人,失业者,寡妇,抚育幼儿者或低收入

者提供经济帮助。

2. Administration in Great Britain is handled by separate executive agencies of the

Department of Social Security. In Northern Ireland by the Social Security Agency.

大不列颠的社会保险由社会保险部独立执行机构管理,在北爱尔兰则是社会保险局。

3. contributory social security benefits, it include:( 1) retirement pension; (2)

unemployment pension; (3) sickness and invalidity benefit and (4) Maternity allowance

and widows’s benefits.

需要先交费的社会安全福利(个人有工作收入时交,无收入时领),其中包括:退休金,

失业金,病残福利金,孕产期补助金,寡妇补助金。

4. non-contributory social security benefits, it include: (1) war pensions;(2) industrial

injuries disablement benefit;(3) child benefit and (4) family credit.

不需要先交费的福利金,包括战争伤亡抚恤金,工伤致残救济金,儿童补助金,低收入家

庭补助金。

III. Religion宗教

1. Everyone in Britain has the right to religious freedom with out interference from the

community or the State. He may change his religion at will may manifest his faith in

teaching, worship and observance. Except that the Lord Chancellor may be a Roman

Catholic, public offices are open without distinction to members of all churches or none.

在英国,人人都有信仰宗教的权利,社会和政府不得干涉。他可以随意改变宗教信仰,可

以在教职,礼拜或仪式中表明他的信仰。除了娃哈哈官不可以是罗马天主教徒外,公共职

务对各种信仰或没有信仰的人一律公开。

2. Established churches

国教

There are two established church in Britain: in England the church of England and

Scotland the Church of England.

英国有两大国教,在英格兰是英格兰国教,苏格兰是苏格兰教会(长老教)。

3. Church of England is uniquely related to the Crown in that the Sovereign must be a

member of that Church and as “Defender of the Faith”. The Church is also linked with

the State through the House of loads. The church of England is not free to change its

form of worship, as laid down in the Book of Common Prayer without the consent of

Parliament.

英格兰国教与君主有独特的联系。因为君主作为“国教的捍卫者”必须是此教会的一员,他在

登基时必须承诺维持国教。国教还通过上议院与政府联系。没有议会同意,英格兰教会不

可随意改变“国教祈祷书”中规定的礼拜仪式。

4. The government of the Church of Scotland is Presbyterian, that is, government by

ministers and elders, all of whom are ordained to office. The Monarch is normally

represented at the general assembly by the Lord High Commissioner.

英格兰教的管理时长老制,也就是由教士和长老治理。他们被授予圣职,王室高级代表通

常代表君主光临会议。

5. Unestablished churches

非国教教会

There are include: the Anglican Churches(圣公会)the Free Churches(自由教)the

Roman Catholic Church(罗马天主教)。

IV. Festival and Public Holidays

节假日

The Christian festival of the year and Christmas, Easter, and Whit Sunday.

其主要的节日有圣诞节,复活节,圣灵降临节

第十章

Sports

体育运动

1. Many international sports were introduced by the British who take their leisure time

very seriously. There is widespread participation in sport in Britain.

许多国际体育项目是由认真对待休闲时间的英国人引进的,在英国,人们广泛参与体育。

2. Football ( or “soccer” as it is colloquially called ), the most popular sport in England as

well as in Europe, has its traditional home in England where it was developed in the 19th

century.

足球(口语叫”soccer”),在英格兰和欧洲是最受欢迎的运动,其传统老家在英格兰,出现

19世纪。

3. The game “Rugby” was invented at Rugby School in Warwich shire in the early 19th

century.

拉格比球比赛19世纪初创立于沃尔威克郡的拉格比学校,因此而得名。

4. Cricket, the most typically English of sports, has been in existence since the 16th

century. On an international level, 5-day Cornhill Test Matches.

板球,是英国人最典型的体育运动,自从16世纪以来已存在。国际比赛是5天的康希尔决赛

5. Although tennis has been played for centuries, the modern game originated in

England in late 19th. The main tournament is the annual Wimbledon fortnight, one of the

4 tennis “Grand Slam” tournaments.

尽管网球已打了好几个世纪,但现代比赛却起源于19世纪末的英格兰。主要比赛是一年一

度的温布尔登两周赛,这是四大满贯网球锦标赛之一。

6. There is a considerable following and participation of athletics in Britain. For example,

the London Marathon, which takes place every spring.

英国参加田径的人很多,例如伦敦的马拉松塞,每年春季举行。

7. The home of golf is Scotland where the game has been played since the 17th century

and naturally the oldest golf club in the world is there: The Honourable Company of

Edinburgh Golfers. The Walker Cup for amateurs and the Ryder Cup for professionals.

高尔夫球的故里是苏格兰,自从17世纪以来这项运动就在那儿盛行。全世界最古老的高尔

夫俱乐部也在那里:爱丁堡高尔夫球会员荣誉公司。业余球员参加沃尔克公开赛,职业球

员参加雷德尔杯。

英国部分结束

美国部分开始

chapter 13 geography 地理位置

1.Alaska and Hawaii are the two newest states in American.Alaska northwestern

Canada,and Hawaii lies in the central Pacific.

阿拉斯加和夏威夷是最近加入美国的两个新州。阿拉斯加在加拿大的西北部,夏威夷位邻

中太平洋。(本细节还有考“一句话简答”的可能)

2.The U.S has a land area of 9.3 million square kilometres.It is the fourth largest country

in the world in size after Russia,Canada and China.

就面积而言,美国是世界第四大国,就人口而言,美国是世界是第三大国。

3.Of all states of American,Alaska is the lagest in area and Rhode Island the

smallest.But on the mainland Texas is the largest sate of the country.

所有州中,阿拉斯加是面积最大的州,罗得岛最小,在美国大陆,最大的州是得克萨斯州

4.The Rockies,the backbone of the North American Continent,is also known as the

Continental Divide.

落基山脉是北美大陆的脊梁,也被成为大陆分水岭。

5.The two main mountain ranges in American are the Appalachian mountains and the

Rocky mountains. The Appalachians run slightly from the northeast to southwest and the

Rocky mountains run slightly from the northwest to southeast.

阿巴拉契亚山脉和落基山脉是美国的两座大山脉。(本细节有考“一句话简答题”的可能)

6.The Mississippi River is the largest river in American,over 6000 kilometers.The

Mississippi has been called "father of waters"or "old man river"

密西西比河是美国最长河流,有被称作“众水之父”或“老人河”。

7.The Ohio river has been called the American Ruhr,As in Germany, the area along the

river is rich in valuable deposits of high-grade coking coal and is well known for its steel

industry.The river provides cheap water transportation for raw materials.

俄亥俄河被称作美国的鲁尔河,就像德国一样,沿河有丰富的高品千周的焦煤,并且因其

钢铁而著名。另外,该河还为原材料提供了廉价的水路运输。

8.On the Pacific side there are two great rivers:the Colorado in the south and the

Columbia ,which rises in Canada.

太平洋沿岸有两大河:科罗拉多河及哥伦比亚河。

9The Rio Grande River forms a natural boundary between Mexico and the United

States.

格兰德河是美国和墨西哥之间的开然界河(本细节考选择和简答可能性大)

10.the most important lakes in the United States are the Great Lakes. They are Lake

Superior,which is the largest fresh water lake in the world, Lake Michigan ,the only

entirely in the U.S.,Lake Huron,Lake Eire and Lake Ontario.They are located between

Canada and the United States except Lake Michigan.

美国最重要的湖泊是五大湖:苏必利尔湖,密歇根湖,休伦湖,伊利湖和安大略湖,其中

,苏必利尔湖为世界最大淡水湖,密歇根湖完全是美国境地内。

11。美国气候概述

1) A humid continental climate(湿润的大陆性气候) is found in the north-eastern part of

the country.

2) In the south-eastern United States you can find a humid subtropical climate.(湿润的亚

热带气候---东南部)

3The Pacific northwest is favored with a maritime climate海洋性气候--太平洋西北岸)

4The southern part of the Pacific coast in California(加州太平洋沿岸南部) has a

Mediterranean climate (地中海式气候)with warm,dry summers and moist winters.

12.Many factors besides latitude influence the climate in the United States.Perhaps the

most important forces are the Atlantic and Pacific oceans,the Gulf of Mexick ,and the

Great Lakes.

影响美国气候的最主要的因素为:太平洋,和大西泮,墨西哥湾,五大湖。

13.Traditionally from the east to the west the United States can be divided into seven

geographical regions.美国从东到西可分为七个地理区。

14.New English is made up of six states of the Northeast .Becaust of its stony soil it is not

noted for its agriculture .Dairying is the most inportant farm activity,New English is also

well-known for its position in education,Many famous universities and colleges such as

Yale,Harvard,thd Massachusetts Institute of Technology(MIT) are located here.

新英格兰由美国东北部六个州组成,由于土壤多石,不利于农业生产,乳制品业是最重要

的农业活动,许多重点大学如耶鲁大学,哈佛大学和麻省理工学院都坐落于此。

15New Englanders were originally knows as Yankees,which came to stand for alll

American.新英格兰人最初曾被称作“美国佬:这一名称,后来渐渐指所有的美国人。(选

择)

16The Middle Atlantic States have about one fifth of the total population of the united

states.大西洋中部各州的人口占美国总人口的1/5

17.The soil is rich,the rain usually pientiful and the growing season long,These factors

make the Midwest America's most important agricultural area .It is also a major

manufacturing region and the nation's leading center of heavy industry.

中西部地区是美国最重要的农业区,也是主要的制造业区各最主要的重工业区。

18.Chicago,the largest and busiest port on the Great Lakes, is the largest industral and

commercial center of the area.芝加哥是五大湖最大最忙的港口,也是该地区最大的工商业

中心。

19.Detroit is known as the automobile capital of the world.Omaha is known as the

agricultural capital of the United states.底特律被称作“汽车之都,奥马哈被称作农业之都

20.Dry farming ,irrigation farming,and the cattle and sheep herding are the main

cativities of the Great Plains of the American West.

旱地农业,灌溉农业和牛羊牧业是美国西部大平原地区的主要活动。

21.Colorado has been called the steel city of the west ,Denver is the largest city of the

Great Plains.科罗拉多市被称作“西部钢城”,丹佛市是大平原地区最大的城市。

22the largest groups of Native Americans are found on the Colorado Plateau.

美国最大的土著群落位于科罗拉多高原。

23.Mmauna Loa,the world's largest volcano,is located on Haiwaii and erupts from time to

time,Suger cane and pineapples anr Haiwaii's main crops.Tourism is Haiwaii's most

important industry.莫纳洛阿火山是世界最大和活火山,甘蔗和菠罗是夏威夷的两大作物,

旅游业是夏威夷最重要的产业。

24Honolulu is the capital of Haiwaii and Juneau is the capital of Alaska.

火奴鲁鲁是夏威夷的首府,朱诺是阿拉斯加的首府。

 

 

新东方英语冲刺笔记



        457    2-23          

 

12.27作文(罗勇)

1、包装

①书写、习惯

②格式(如书信右上角的时间)、结构(两头小、中间大、字数分配50-80-50

↗长句↖                

③选词造句→短句←交错使用(15句,1/3写长句,30字左右,长句后接一两句短句过渡)

↘难句:强调句(最好使)

2、货真价实

↗情景文字

①不要跑题(跑题则一半分数以下),审题(三维)→提纲

↘图或表上的信息

②内容衔接(思维跨度不要太大)→总述和概述

↘注意句子完整

③方法多样性

 

一、大作文

(一)描绘:描述性语言、可加议论性观点

(二)议述:作者意图、个人评价

(三)总结(好的:预期一下未来;坏的:采取措施防治)/ 例证

具体讲:

(一)   描绘:总体背景介绍+细节刻画图或表上的信息

1、背景介绍

例一:人类克隆(试管婴儿 / 一个老婆四个一模一样的老公,“谁才是真的?”)

The problem of the use of genetic technologies on human being has [caused/aroused

public concern]/[loomed up/cropped up as a burning/challenging topic].

例二:中国青少年犯罪比率上升(表)

In the recent years, China experienced/witnessed/was plagued with an alarming increase

in juvenile delinquency.

例三:人和社会的发展与环境的协调(寓意图、对比图)

Currently, the topic/phenomenon of environment versus development has been in the

limelight. Nowhere is the clash more evident/visible than in China, where the largest

population confronts deforestation, pollution and acid rain on a range scale.

2、细节描绘

例:04年作文题

The (a set of) cartoon depicts a vivid scene in which an athlete dripping sweat is rushing

to the end. Unquestionably/Undoubtedly/Beyond doubt, he wins the game but it is not

the key message conveyed/implied/delivered by the picture. Apparently/Basically, the

striking feature is that there is a line marked as both “the start” and “the end”, which

means after the player came to the finishing-line, a new race is waiting to him.

另:对于图表描述不光要用上升下降等词,还要使用比较句型结构。

compare with/to

as much as that…

more than, less than

by 2000, [the number reach the peak/bottom]/[the largest number appeared].

(二)   议述

引言句+分论点、事实信息罗列

如:As a matter of fact, the purpose of the drawer/drawing is to make us [pay high/more

attention to…]/[rethink/have a fresh look at…].

例一:兼职part-time job

brainstorming

I. Advantages:

pocket money

            make money follow interest

                                                  tuition fees

on ones own

                                                lifemake friends

            experience               custom, culture

                                                worklay a solid foundation for future career

                                                              be familiar with new fields

II. Disadvantages:

money: be so young that they are bound to be cheated/be induced to do

experiencescience and technology accelerate/speed up invalid

                                                hurt/injury/do harm to/endanger

III. what should we do?

a second language

computer operation and application

③后果degrade ones academic performance

完整表述:

Acquiring knowledge at school without practical work experience is like working on one

leg. Occasionally, although a student could attain some experience, nevertheless/yet

such experience too frequently is [valid or even harmful]/[a bane rather than a boon].

That is to say, its demerits outweigh merits. Why? This is natural and necessary. Not

only may the acceleration of science and technology bring about new tools/skills with

each passing day, but also our work circumstances will change as the society develops.

The fact that college students must get a good command of a second language as well

as master the operation and application of computer requires them not to do part-time

job. If they take part-time job, their energy and time will not be enough and their

academic will degrade.

 

12.28作文

例二:出国留学

brainstorming

dream of (doing)

原因(好处)→ the mere way to achieve success

                             curricula arrangement, teaching method

                                         why?/how?/which channel?

good learning condition

                                         what?

                             up-to-date teaching equipment

                             first-class research facilities

                             world famous professors

坏处:money tuition fees                     而在国内dont worry about

                              living expense

       communication: language and cultural barrier           而在国内parents care and

support facilitate

例三:盗版问题(最新光盘,四元一张;港台歌曲,十元三盒;流行书刊,一律二折)

(乾坤大挪移)Nowadays, the problem of piracy has been in the limelight. According to

the cartoon we could find that books, VCDs, tapes and other high-tech products have

been copied. When a new product enters into the market, we are bound to discover that

its pirated counterpart will soon swarm/flood into the same market. Never in the nation’s

history has the problem of piracy been more severe than now.

There is no denying that pirated commodities has not only resulted in a great loss to

producer /manufacturers, inventors and writers, but also disturb/have a confusion in the

market. Why? In that the pirated goods often cost less than the original ones, they enjoy

a pretty good selling in spite of their shoddy quality. The genuine ones, however/by

contrast, sell poorly. A current investigation/study/ report/survey/poll

indicates/manifests/reveals that consumers spend approximately 20 billion on the

pirated counterparts instead of the genuine ones annually. In addition, such pirated

product, especially books, will do harm to/endanger the producers’ reputation due to too

many misprinting.

(三)   结论

另:养宠物话题

With the quickening pace of modern life and fierce competition in the society, many

people feel a sense of loneliness, not only because of the lack of normal communication

in the family but also since absence of intercourse among the neighborhood. Cats and

dogs or other pets will fill your void.

1 总结性发言

例:养宠物

[Taking into account all the factors]/[which has been discussed above], we can safely

come to a conclusion that keep-pets has both positive and negative influences. What we

must do is to make sure that not only are its benefits encouraged and

developed/retained but also we have to strive to/attempt to/endeavor to eliminate its

unfavorable impacts.

2 号召与后果

例:腐败现象

It is time that our government/authority should speak out against corruption and take

firm/strong/stern action to punish him whoever takes bribes and embezzles funds. For

the official corruption [if permitted to continue]/[If let this situation go as it is] will tarnish

the government’s popularity/image and may lead to ultimate/terminate downfall.

3 具体的建议

例:学生吸烟比率上升

In any case, we ought to do more than talk about the rise in student smoking. Our high

schools and colleges must bring in some cancer experts/specialists/researchers who run

films/slides for students, showing the dreadful consequence caused by cigarette

smoking. We can also arrange/schedule visits to hospital wards for lung cancer patients.

In short, we should take student smoking seriously.

 

12.29作文

二、应用文

书信

↗①语气 / 措辞客气

公务信件→②格式:开头(写明目的)、结尾(期待回音)

                        ↘③词汇 / 语法(言简意赅,长句最多25个字)

另:无论是大作文还是小作文,都不用些标题,如果想写则须注意以下问题:

①实词大写;②字母长度大于等于4个的虚词大写;③第一个单词的位置,不论实词还是虚

词都要大写;④动词短语不做标题

补充:1、投诉信(换宿舍)

Dec.29th, 2004

Dear Sir or Madam/To whom it may concern/Dear Mr. Dean Zhang,

I’m writing to inform you that I wish to moving to a new room next term. I prefer a single

room, as I rind the present sharing arrangement inconvenient.

            I must explain that the reason for dissatisfaction is my roommate’s inconsiderate

behavior. For one thing, his friends constantly visit him; for another, he regularly holds

noisy parties. In addition, he too often borrows my private things without my permission.

Consequently, I find it difficult for me to concentrate on my studies.

            I’m sure that you will agree that I must move into a room of my own, where I would

be far from such distraction. I would be grateful if you would take my requirement into

consideration, as well as provide me with a room, preferably not in the same building but

as near to college campus as possible.

Yours faithfully

XXX

2、感谢信(感谢车祸中及时救助你的人)

            I’m writing to express my heartful gratitude. I’m referring to the unfortunate crash,

when I was knocked off my bike by a taxi. But for your timely taking first aid and sending

me to a nearby hospital, I fear that the consequence might have been much more

serious.

            The doctor says that my broken leg is healing well, and cuts and bruises will

soon be completely better, what’s more, the taxi company agreed to pay my hospital

bills. Everyone holds that it is your quick-witted action in the emergency that has led to

satisfactory outcome.

            Although many people talk about the need to be unselfish and to ready to help

others, we see few people practicing what they preach. You showed by your selfless

action that you are an exception. If there are more people like you, the world would be a

much nicer one.

3、求购 / 预定信(为朋友庆祝生日)

            I’m preparing a birthday party for a friend, and writing o inquire if you restaurant

could offer private rooms with catering service. If so, I want to reserve one room for next

Friday (oct.16th) from 5 p.m. to 9 p.m.

            The room should be big enough to accommodate more than 50 people

comfortably. And the party will be hold in a cocktail style; therefore a majority of us will

be standing up for most of the time. So ten chairs are needed in the room. If there isn’t a

bar, a drinks table should be set up. For entertainment, Karaoke of Disk jockey may be

acceptable.

            Will you please contact me in two days? You can reach at 13820XXXXXX in the

daytime and at 2737XXXX in the night. Thanks for you consideration once more.

 

12.30翻译(高翼)

一、真题回顾

预测热点:1、战争与和平,反恐

                          2、资源、能源、环境保护

                          3、信息及网络技术

                          4、纳米技术

                          5、生命科学

二、难度分析

05年难度要比04年难一些

94                                   99       01      04        05

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

三、词汇

1、生词

①构词法

例:95年(72validatevalid有效的);(75underprivilegedprivilege特权)

            97年(72entitlemententitle使有权利);(73astrophysicistsastro-天体,

宇宙,astrology占星术)

            

00年(71centralizedcentral主要的,中心的);(74industrializedindustrial工业

的)

②结合上下文(对称位置的单词、词组可做同义推理)

例:94年(71not so much A as B(另throughbecause of

            95年(74qualities品质(可数)

            98年(73balloon-borne球载

            99年(75view as视作(同义see asregard as

③跳过不译

2、一词多译

①结合上下文判断

例:94年第一句school学派

98年(72clouds宇宙云

99年(73transfer改变,转变

00年(75migration人口迁徙,人口流动(不能译作移民,移民是带政治色彩的)

②结合搭配对象

例:95年(75gross明显的(如果知道“总的”是不正确的,而又不知道应该是什么意思,

可跳过不译)

            96年(72establishment机构(74elegant完美的,对应(75elegance

            97年(73extend给予,提供

③从逻辑性上判断

例:94年(74heaven天空,太空

            99年(71recreated重现

④词性

例:to betterv. 改善)the condition of the workers

we have no time to deliberatev.思考,考虑)on the issue

3、代词

注意代词的形容词用法与指示代词的区别

例:this(指示性形容词,这个)bag

            This(指示代词,这)is mine

            97年(75that人们对动物的同情心(注意:当多个代词指定同一内容时,只需译

一个)

            01年(71)当指代混乱时,要指明所指代内容(注意:如果指代的内容在上下文中

不好找,则直接译为这,那,它,它们等)

4、单复数问题

例:9871scientists科学家们

四、句子

1、时态

①将来时,“将”安体现

例:01年(71

②完成时,“了”字体现

例:01年(72

③进行时,“正在”体现

例:00年(73

2、语态,译时可将被动形式变为主动形式

例:96年(73);99年(73);97年(73

如果主语无法补充,而又不能译成被动形式,则需意译

例:95年(72be regarded…译为“……所必不可少的”

            00年(72)be bound up

with…本意为“与……捆绑”,此处译为“与……紧密相关”(73be exposed to…本意为“被

置于……下”,此处译为“接触到……”

五、特殊句型与结构

1morethan

beyond超越

例:Her beauty is more than words can describe.

②与其……不如……,more后是“不如”than后是“与其”

例:His works seem more likely a collection of separate scenes than a novel.

2little/no more than仅仅

例:Of him little is known more than hes a doctor.

3nothing else than/but=nothing but只不过是;完全是

例:①What the man said was nothing else but nonsense. “完全是”

       I have done nothing else than finishing my tasks. “只不过是”

4rather than否定后者肯定前者

例:①He was reading newspaper rather than writing letters.

       He rather than you should be responsible for the loss.

5not so much A as Bnot A but B不同,前者AB均可取,但强调B,后者表不取AB

6not possibly表完完全全、根本地否定,“根本不”的意思

例:Their views couldnt possibly be misunderstood.

7notnearly as much as远远不如

例:The earth does not pull the cat to it nearly as much as it pulls a big rock.

8to say nothing of=not to speak of=not to mention表加

例:①She takes singing and dancing lesson, not to speak of swimming.

       At that moment, he could not afford food, not to speak of luxuries.

9all but后加形容词则表almost;后加名词则表all except

例:①Failure, for them, become all but impossible.

       All but little children thought the trip was exciting.

10other than除掉,不同于

例:Reactions other than desired ones often happen.

11notbut…不是……而是……

12as well as注意并列的对象

例:①He agrees with you as well as I. HeI的并列

He agrees with you as well as me. youme的并列

六、其他

没有必要通读全文,遇到代词和一词多译的情况要结合上下文;此外出现的人名地名需要

译的,约定的,如纽约,牛顿要写成规范的中文,对于非约定的,可根据读音编个中文然

后后面加括号附上英文。

附:学科中英文名称对照表

Aeronautical and astronautically Engineering:航空和航天工程

Aerodynamics:空气动力学

Aesthetics:美学

Algebra:代数学

Anthropology:人类学

Archaeology:考古学

Architecture:建筑学

Astronomy:天文学

Biology and bioengineering:生物学和生物工程

Business and management:商业与管理

Chemistry and chemical engineering:化学和化学工程

Civil and environmental engineering:土木和环境工程

Computer science:计算机科学

Dynamics:力学

Earth and atmospheric sciences:地球和大气科学

Ecology:生态学

Economics:经济学

Educational technology:教育科技

Electrical engineering:电机工程

Elementary-particle physics基本粒子物理学

Environment and energy:环境和能源

Ethnics:伦理学

Geochemistry:地球化学

Geography:地理学

Geology:地质学

Geophysics:地球物理

Geometry:几何学

Health physics:保健物理学

Humanities:人文学科

Hydrodynamics:流体力学

Journalism:新闻学

Languages and literature:语言与文学

Libraries:图书馆学

Linear algebra:线性代数

Linguistics语言学

Logistics:物流学

Media arts and sciences:媒体艺术与科学

Meteorology:气象学

Materials sciences and engineering:材料科学与工程

Mechanical engineering:机械工程

Medical sciences:医学

Nanoscience and nanotechnology:纳米科技

Nuclear engineering:核子工程

Oceanography and ocean engineering:海洋学和海洋工程

Operational research:运筹学

Optics:光学

Philosophy:哲学

Physiology:生理学

Political science:政治学

Robotics and artificial intelligence:机器人与人工智能

Statistics:统计学

Social sciences:社会科学

Sociology:社会学

System engineering:系统工程

Thermodynamics:热力学

Urban studies and planning:城市研究与规划

Zoology:动物学

 

12.31七选五(高翼)

解题技巧:

1、就近原则寻找信息线索;

2、选项中出现时间年代时,往往要注意与原文中年代的前后对应关系;

3、选项中出现代词时,往往该选项不能放在首句,要注意指代成立的条件。

4、绝对选项常是干扰项,意思太泛太窄要小心;

5、警惕无关离题词,两项相近有答案;

6、选项对比原文时,与原文重复或同义改写的字越多的往往就是正确选项;

7、总体观、相互补,做题不用按顺序,选先做易后做难,莫忘近邻上下文;

8、放在段尾的名字有时也会有提示词:①因果连词;②总结性连词;③转折性连词

 

1.9阅读(魏越越)

一、定位

1、题干选项

①数字、年代

②大写字母

③生僻且复杂的词(专业词汇)

④中心概念(相关、相近)

一般前三种情况出现的较多

2、顺序原则:即出题顺序与文章段落一般情况下是一直的,但也有例外。

二、题型

1、词汇题

问法:The word/phrase ...”(line paragraph …)most probably was

①单词:A超纲词,考本意        B常见词,考转意;②短语:全部考转意

做法:①返回原文,找到核心词;②注意核心词附近相同词性的内容;③结合上下文,注

意同位语,特别标点,定语从句及前后缀

注意:短语题中字面意思的选项永远是错的

另:相邻两句间关系:①转折②并列或顺接

例题:94.6694.5795.5794.5101.6902.4703.4398.52

关于词汇题要考的词:

白词(即认识的)

灰词(为不考本意的词)

以下为灰词的总结!

import重要性、意义、含义

understand知性

reason理性

reasoning推理

knowledge知道、知晓

term条件;措辞

industry产业

law法规、规则

act法案

community社会

agent动因

productivity经济

implication影响(本义:暗示)

code法则,准则

politics斗争,手腕

tip①指导,忠告②插图,插页

might力量

sport(动)夸耀

exercise(动)施加影响

word(名)消息;(动)措辞

measure法案

leave(名)休假;(动)使得,让……(如leave the window open

passage通过

spell(名)=period

keep(名)生计

黑词(即不认识的)

推断方法:

①下定义,标志词:A is/means/refers to

②同位语:A, one of .

③近义词:A or BAB不一定是近义词,可能毫不相关)

                          A, or BA and BAB绝对是近义词)

④解释:A is that is (后一个is后面的内容是对A的解释)/That is…(是对上一句尾句名

词的解释)

⑤标点符号()和——

⑥构词法(in-只有三对不表相反义,如下:)

flammable可燃的inflammable易燃

valuable有价值的invaluable无价值的

ravel解开,松开irravelravel同义(咪咪没查到这个单词)

⑦定语从句

⑧前后对比,如:

on the other handcontrason the contrary;转折词

⑨常识

⑩专业词汇

2、举例题

问法:The example of “…” in the passage is used to

When mentioning “…”, the author is talking about

结论是例子所服务的对象,例子所说明的道理

做法:结合例子,精读例子前面一句话

注意:例子里的细节信息不能出现在正确选项里

例:94.6304.53

另:①如果出现一个结论,下面有ABCD四个顺序出现的例子,问D例子说明了什么

。也就是说为结论服务的例子不止一个时,要在第一个例子里面找结论,这个结论而往往

是段首句。②再如问A(第16行)与B(第22行)两个例子是为了说明什么,此是AB

服务于一个结论,因此AB之间的内容不必看,直接找A前面的句子。

窍门:当support/show/reveal/demonstrate/strengthen出现时看看是否是结论中的某个词

的同义变换

3主题题

问法:mainly discuss/mainly about/best title不论题目出现在什么位置,一定要最后做

做法:①综合各段首句,如果第一段有转折词,重点往往在转折词后面;②名词性词组和

文章的高频词汇是主体内容;如;③若文章有主题句,则与主题句相对应的为正确答案,

对于A问题答案型:如01.59B花开两朵型:文章有两个核心概念,围绕展开论述,又分

为:a并进型:在第一段提出两个核心概念,下面并重地对两个核心概念进行论述,要找两

个概念间的区别和联系,如94.54b大花小花型:重点找大花(从文章篇幅就能看出)。

注意:①首段陷阱,如94.5894.6198.70;②逆向思维,两个选项相似的进行排除;③

主题干扰选项:A局部信息:选项内容小于文章内容  B范围过宽,选项内容远大于文章内

例:96.6600.5902.45

4指代题

问法:it/they/them

做法:①返回原文,找出出题的指代词;②向上搜索,找最近的名词性短语或句子;③将

找到的词、词组或句子替换为该指代词,看其意思是否通畅;④将找到的词、词组或句子

与四个选项相比较,找出最佳答案

例:95.59

注意:要半个分句半个分句地(即以逗号为准)向上找对应成份

5细节题

定位:同义变换:换同义词;句式

注意:绝对化语言往往是错误选项(其他题目也适应),没有原文根据的绝对化语言为错

误答案①最高级:-estmostleast,顺序最高级firstlastat most;②唯一性:only

sole(ly)unique(ly)exclusive(ly)alone

例:98.6597.1100.57

6态度题

I全文态度,问法:From the test, we can see that the writer seems

II局部态度:问法:Sb.s attitude toward sth./sb. Is

做法:对于I全文态度,分析各段首句,总结作者表态度的动词、形容词或副词;对于II局部

态度题,定位核心词在原文中出现的位置,在其附近寻找带有感情色彩的动词、形容词或

副词,如:97.5403.5203.5804.58

表态度词的总结:

①语气弱,观点不明确

light-hearted轻松的

jocular开玩笑的

facetious嘻皮笑脸的

indifference漠不关心的

impassive同上

ambivalence模棱两开的

suspicious怀疑的

puzzling困惑的

②语气过重

过坏:

condemnation咒骂

indignant愤怒

envious妒嫉

offensive令人讨厌的

insincere不忠诚的

callous冷漠无情的

defiance藐视

derision嘲笑的

scornful鄙视的

cynical愤世嫉俗的

spiteful痛恨的

bias偏见的

disgusting令人恶心的

过好:

fervent狂热

adulatory拍马屁

③中性词:

neutral中立的(选项中的“吴孟达”)

cautious小心的,慬慎的

④观点明确的词语

critical批评的

approve/disapprove赞同的/不赞同的

support支持的

negative/positive负面的/积极的

⑤客观性词

objective

impartial

做法:①看选项,排除过于轻描淡写、态度观点不明确的态度词;②排除语气过重的态度

词;③排除相近选项;④保留观点明确的词、客观性词和中性词;⑤看题干确定感情态度

的指向,再判断该的性质;⑥最后做出选择先后顺序:客观、支持、反对、中性

例:97.7098.6299.54

7推理题

问法:learninferimplysuggestconcludetrue or false

做法:不许推理!一推就错。按细节题的做法

错误选项的特点:①与原文矛盾;②原文中没有出现过的内容;③把原文单词重新组合使

语义剧变

正确选项的特点:原文中某句话的同义变换

例:95.6297.5697.6299.5899.63.6601.6502.52

补充:微观阅读法

1、看标点符号:破折号(——),冒号(:),分号(;)

2、抓句子主干

3、注意对照词:

namelyin other wordslikewisethat is to say

②转折词:

显性:butyethoweveron the other handothersin contrastneverthelesson

the contrary……

隐性:while(al)thoughdespitewhereas(前面四个出现时,重点是这词后面的那个

分句),the trouble isthe problem iswhat is harder to dois notdoes not……

③表结果的连词:thusconsequence……

④表递进:furthermorein addition toadd to……

4、出题点:

①列举句;②举例,打比喻;③某人物的论断;④转折处;⑤复杂句;⑥因果句;⑦特殊

标点;⑧段首段尾句

 

四级核心词汇笔记



        482    2-23          

 

  v. 主张;硬说,确信,声明

  2. asset

  n. 资产的一部分,有价值的东西

  3. assess

  v.估定,评定,估价,课税

  4. access

  n.接近,接纳,捷径,(疾病的)发作

  5. convention

  n.集合;公约,习俗,代表

  6. convert

  n.改变信仰或意见的人

  v.改变,使转向,强占,转换

  7. devil

  n.魔鬼,极坏的人,精力充沛的人,可怜的人

  v.戏弄,困扰,撕碎,和以辛辣煎煮的食物

  8. exclude

  v.拒绝;排斥;除去,使无余地

  9. intense

  adj.激烈的,紧张的,热情的

  10. priority

  n.居先,优先次序,在前,在先

  11. privilege

  n.特权,恩典,特殊荣幸

  v.给与特权,给与特别恩典,特许

  12. resort

  v.常去;屡次往访;依靠,诉诸

  n.游客常去的休闲度假之处;胜地,常去,求助

  13. restore

  v.复旧,复活,复兴,复职

  14. soar

  n.翱翔;耸立高度;高涨程度

  v.高耸,猛涨;滑翔,翱翔

  15. boost

  n.推动,提高,后援,在商店中行窃

  v.吹嘘;提高;开压,由后推上

  16. utilize

  v.利用

  17. convict

  v.证明有罪;宣判有罪;定罪,使知错

  n.罪犯

  adj.宣判有罪的

  18. dictate

  n.命令;指挥

  v.听写,口援,命令,下令

  19. dictation

  n.口述,听写,命令,指令,

  20. intent

  n.意思;增强语气的字等

  adj.意图的,专心的,热心的

  21. earnest

  n.保证金,定金

  adj.认真的,重大的,保证的

  22. serious

  adj.严重的,危急的,重要的,认真的

  23. outset

  n.着手,开端,最初

  24. digest

  n.分类,摘要

  v.消化,概述,谅解

  25. profile

  n.侧面像;轮廓;写照.纵部面

  v.画…的侧面像;对…做扼要描述

  26. sophisticated

  adj.诡辩的,掺杂的,经过润色的;世故的

  27. trap

  n.陷阱,轻便马车,打击乐器

  v.设陷阱,捕捉,诱骗

  28. correspondence

  n.通信,符合

  29. counsel

  n.商议,计划,律师,劝告

  30. solemn

  adj.认真的,神圣的,严肃的,庄重的

1. explode

  v.使爆破;推翻;驳倒,发作,爆炸

  2. prominent

  adj.突起的,著名的,显要的

  3. bulk

  n.大小,容积;大量;船舱

  v.长大,使视为重要,堆积,使胀大

  4. prompt

  adj.敏捷的;即时的;果断的

  n.提示;交割期限

  v.唤醒;激励,激起

  5. retain

  v.依然承认;记忆,记得,雇用

  6. disposal

  n.布置;处分,整理,转让

  7. property

  n.财产;所有物,舞台道具,所有权

  8. bump

  n.冲撞;肿块;能力,颠簸

  v.冲撞,颠簸地走,免职

  9. clash

  n.当当声;撞击声,冲突

  v.抵触,相撞,撞击,作撞击声

  10. pump

  n.,抽水机;唧筒;打气筒;套问,傻子

  v.抽水,抽气,充气,跳动

  11. crew

  n.全体船员,伙伴,群体

  v.crow的过去式

  12. crow

  n.乌鸦;啼叫,作喔喔声,婴孩欢呼声

  13. dimension

  n.尺寸;次元;容积;体积

  adj.作成某种尺寸的

  v.作成某种尺寸

  14. prosperity

  n.繁荣,兴隆,成功,幸运

  15. revolt

  n.叛乱,变节,嫌恶,不快

  v. 造反,呕心,感觉不快,反抗

  16. riot

  v.骚乱;欢闹,恣情,沉溺

  n.骚乱,放纵,骚动,紊乱

  17. specimen

  n.样品,标本,奇怪的人

  adj.作为样本的

  18. spectacular

  n.时间长而且重要之电视节目

  adj.公开展示的,惊人的,壮大的,蔚为奇观的

  19. speculate

  v.沉思;推测,投机,思索

  20. trim

  n.整齐,清洁,准备状态,特质

  adj.整齐的,清洁的

  adv.整齐地;清洁地

  21. vocational

  adj.职业的,业务的

  22. hostile

  adj.怀敌意的,敌对的,反对的

  23. protest

  n.抗议;郑重声明,拒付证书

  v.抗议,断言,宣誓,开拒绝书

  24. provision

  v.供以物质

  n.准备;供应,储备物质

  25. provoke

  v.使愤怒,煽动

  26. ridiculous

  adj.滑稽的,荒谬的

  27. curse

  n.诅咒;殃祸,祸因,被诅咒之物

  v.诅咒,咒骂

  28. owing

  adj.亏欠的,末支付的,应给予的

  29. rival

  n.竞争对手,敌手

  adj.竞争的

  v.争胜,竞争

  30. parallel

  n.平行线;对等着,比较

  adj.平行的,对应的,并联的,相同的

  v.(使)与…平行

1. opponent

  n.敌手,反对者

  adj.敌对的;对抗的,相向的,对立的

  2. meltdown

  n.剧变,骤然变化

  3. halt

  n.停止,犹豫;小站,电车站

  adj.跛的,蹒跚的

  v.立定,驻军

  4. kettle

  n.,,深穴

  5. blur

  n.污脏,污点,不清楚

  6. obscure

  adj.昏暗的,朦胧的,难解的,暧昧的

  7. sweage

  n.污水,污秽物

  8. noxious

  adj.有害的,有毒的,精神不健全的

  9. drastic

  adj.激烈的,猛烈的,彻底的

  10. effluent

  n.放出物,支流

  adj.流出的,放出的

  11. manure

  n.肥料,粪肥

  v.施肥

  12. province

  n.,地方,范围,职责

  13. ridge

  n.,屋脊,分水岭

  v.起棱纹似的波浪

  14. spin

  n.旋转,疾弛,螺旋下降

  v.纺纱;使旋转,拖延,抽丝织网

  15. spiritual

  n.黑人灵歌,与教会有关的事项

  adj.崇高的,精神的,灵魂的,神圣的

  16. spit

  v.,刺穿,下小雨,发如吐之声音

  n.烤肉的铁叉子;,,酷似

  17. steep

  adj.陡峭的,险峻的,夸张的,极端的

  n.陡峭,,,使渗透

  18. instruct

  v.教导,指令,训令

  19. disguise

  n.乔装,假装,虚伪

  v.乔装,伪装,掩饰

  20. mould

  n.模型,性格,凹形,

  21. stoop

  n.驼背;屈服;袭击;门阶

  v.弯腰;屈服,飞扑而下,坠落

  22. strap

  n.绳带,吊带,带圈,皮带

  v.用手捆,用皮束缚,鞭打,用皮带磨

  23. humble

  adj.谦逊的,低声下气的

  v.使卑下,贬抑,挫人锐气

  24. rust

  n.铁锈,红褐色,锈病,陈旧

  v.使荒废,使生锈,陈旧,腐蚀

  25. strategy

  n.军事学,兵法;战略;军略

  26. stretch

  n.一口气,范围,徙刑,持续

  adj.有弹性可拉长的

  v.伸展,夸大

  27. delegate

  n.代表,派遣委员

  v.指派…作代表,委派…为代表,授权

  28. ingredient

  n.成分,原料,要素

  29. conjunction

  n.结合,连结,接连,一连事件或情况之结合

  30. optimistic

  adj.乐观的,乐天的,乐观主义的

 1. moderate

  n.言行中庸之人,稳健之人,温和主义者

  adj.稳健的,适当的,少量的,温和的

  2. shed

  n.小屋,,车房

  v.脱皮,流出,落下

  3. wicked

  adj.坏的,邪恶的,性情凶恶的,怀恶意的,恶毒的

  4. tissue

  n.软纸,纸巾,薄的纸品,纺织,一套谎言,结构

  5. consent

  v.许可,承诺,默认同意

  6. consequence

  n.结果,影响,影响力,重大

  7. remedy

  n.医疗法;救济对策,矫正法;公差

  v.治疗,修补,抵销

  8. condemn

  v.谴责,宣告,命令,充公

  9. derive

  v.自……引得,推论,追溯

  10. orbit

  n.轨道,眼窝,眼睑部;范围

  v.绕……周围轨道运行

  11. torture

  n.拷问,痛苦

  v.使受痛苦,折磨,曲解,扭曲

  12. brake

  n.蕨类植物,高大的四轮马车,丛林

  v.用煞车止住或迟缓车;用麻梳梳

  13. depute

  v.指定代理人,委派;以授予代理人

  14. priest

  n.神职者,伴侣,神父,杀鱼的短棒

  v.任命为祭司;使任圣职

  15. resemble

  v.类似.相似.比拟

  16. slope

  n.倾斜,山坡,斜坡,斜行

  adj.倾斜的,离去

  17. harsh

  adj.粗糙的,粗涩的,刺耳的

  18. clumsy

  adj.愚笨的,不好看的,粗陋的

  19. synthetic

  n.化学合成物

  adj.综合的,虚构的,人造的

  20. vessel

  n.容器,,水上飞机,器皿

  21. pierce

  v.刺穿,冲入,穿破,打动

  22. thrust

  n.,攻击,推力

  v.,冲入,伸出

  23. knot

  n.(蝴蝶)结,海里,结合,肌肉的硬块,难事,绳结

  v.打结,包扎,打结成

  24. pillar

  n.支柱,标柱,矿柱

  v.以柱支撑或装饰

  25. pit

  n.凹洞,,地下温室,陷阱

  v.去……之核,使有痘痕或伤痕,使相搏斗

  26. marine

  n.海军陆战他,舰队,海运的

  adj.海的,海岸的,海运的

  27. margin

  n. 边缘; ,栏外, 最低获利点

  v.标记在栏外, 为付保证金,围绕

  28. coarse

  adj.粗糙的,粗粒的,粗鄙的,劣等的

  29. swell

  n.膨胀,高起的地,河水上涨,音量的

  adj.优秀的,高级的,漂亮的

  30. culprit

  n.犯人,嫌疑犯

 1. decay

  n.渐渐衰弱,腐败,衰变

  v.衰退,使腐朽,使衰退腐败

  2. worm

  n.,寄生虫,蠕虫,寄生虫病,电脑破坏者

  3. maintain

  n.保养,保持,抚养生计

  4. molecure

  n.分子,微分子,微点,微小颗粒

  5. ammonia

  n.,氨水

  6. satellite

  n.仆人,跟班,卫星,附庸国

  adj.卫星的,附庸的

  7. drum

  n.,鼓声,鼓状物,鼓膜

  v.击鼓,作鼓声,咚咚地敲,反覆进言

  8. rope

  n,粗绳,绳索,,吊死,绞刑,

  v.形成黏浆,彼此以绳连结而行,拉绳分开

  9. dive

  v.潜水,俯冲,下等的饮酒赌博处,跳水

  n.潜水,俯冲,冲进,潜心于,探究

  10. assist

  n.(棒球)助杀出局,援助,参加

  v.援助,出席,帮助,参加

  11. vigor

  n.体力.元气,气势,精力

  12. obsess

  v.迷住,缠住,使分心

  13. impulse

  n.冲动,冲击,推动力,刺激

  14. prestige

  n.威信,威望

  adj.有威信的,有威望的,有声望的

  15. taboo

  n.禁忌,禁止接近,禁止

  adj.禁止的,不可接近的

  v.严禁,禁用

  16. offspring

  n.子孙,后果,产物

  17. marathon

  n.马拉松,持久战争,耐久比赛

  18. disproportion

  adj.不成比例的

  19. pistol

  n.手枪

  v.以用枪射击

  20. distinctive

  adj.区别的,特别的,有特色的

  21. hockey

  n.曲棍球

  22. mountaineering

  n.登山运动

  23. hardship

  n.辛苦,苦难,困境

  24. alp

  n.山峰,高峰,牧场

  25. dash

  n.少许,突进,冲撞,短跑

  v.抛掷,锰撞,使失望,挽合

  26. pinch

  n.偷窃, 搜捕,危急情况,

  v.,使憔悴,使困乏,逮捕

  27. sanction

  n.核准,外罚,约束力,制裁

  28. fabric

  n.纺织品,结构,组织

  29. plug

  n.,填充物

  v.,堵塞,殴打,普及

  30. via

  prep.取道.经由.藉由,以…为媒介

1. barrel

  n.大桶,一桶之量,枪身

  v.装入桶中,汽车等高速前进

  2. dose

  n.一服【药】;一次投入量

  v.配药,服药,混杂

  3. chase

  n.追求,打猎,被捕的动物,铁框

  v.追赶;挖沟,拼命,跑步

  4. surrender

  n.投降,屈服

  v.放弃,让渡,任摆布,屈服

  5. harmony

  n.融合,调和,协调,和声学

  6. fertile

  adj.肥沃的,结果实的

  7. realm

  n.王国,国土,领域

  8. sphere

  n.,球体,天体,领域

  v.包围,将……做成球体

  9. apprentice

  n.学徒,见习,初学者

  v.使为学徒

  10. frailty

  n.脆弱,过失,意志薄弱

  11. feeble

  adj.无力的,轻微的,朦胧的

  12. motorist

  n.汽车驾驶者,常坐汽车的人

  13. domestic

  n.佣人,国货

  adj.家庭的,热心家务的,驯养的,国内的

  14. thrive

  v.繁荣,兴旺

  15. distribution

  n.分类,分派,分布

  16. irrigation

  n.灌溉,冲洗

  17. dam

  n.水坝,水闸,母兽,堵住

  v.筑堤,用堤坝防水,抑制

  18. wharf

  n.码头,停泊处

  v.停靠在码头,把货卸上码头,在码头停泊

  19. prairie

  n.大草原,草地

  20. hazardous

  adj.危险的,冒险的

  21. disgorge

  v.吐出,流出,不自愿地放弃

  22. superb

  adj.雄伟的,壮丽的,华丽的,极好的

  23. outpost

  n.哨兵,前哨部队,前哨基地,先驱

  24. rancher

  n.大农场经营者,牧场工人,牧童

  25. toddlers

  n.初学走路的孩子

  26. canoeing

  n.驾独木舟,玩独木舟,划独木船

  27. monorail

  n.单轨

  28. stroll

  n.漫步,游历,邀游

  29. craft

  n.同业,专家的,船舶(飞机)手艺;工艺

  30. diameter

  n.直径;对径,透镜放大的倍数

 

语言学笔记

Chapter 1 Introduction: Language and Linguistics

l        What is language?

n        Different definitions of language

u      Language is a system whose parts can and must be considered in their synchronic solidarity. (de Saussure, 1916)

u      [Language is] a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. (Chomsky, 1957)

u      Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.

n        Each of the definitions above has pointed out some aspects of the essence of language, but all of them have left out something. We must see the multi-faceted nature of language.

n        As is agreed by linguists in broad terms, language can be defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

l        Features of human language

n        Creativity

u      Language provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and for understanding brand new messages.

u      The grammar rules and the words are finite, but the sentences are infinite. Every speaker uses language creatively.

n        Duality

u      Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of meanings.

u      Certain sounds or sequences of sounds stand for certain meanings.

u      Certain meanings are conveyed by certain speech sounds or sequences of speech sounds.

n        Arbitrariness

u      The relationship between the two subsystems of language is arbitrary.

u      There is no logical connection between sound and meaning.

n        Displacement

u      There is no limit in time or space for language.

u      Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future.

n        Cultural transmission

u      Culture cannot be genetically transmitted. Instead, it must be learned.

u      Language is a way of transmitting culture.

n        Interchangeability

u      All members of a speech community can send and receive messages.

n        Reflexivity

u      Human languages can be used to describe themselves.

u      The language used to talk about language is called meta-language.

l        Functions of language – three meta-functions

n        The ideational function

u      To identify things, to think, or to record information.

n        The interpersonal function

u      To get along in a community.

n        The textual function

u      To form a text.

l        Types of language

n        Genetic classification

n        Typological classification

u      Analytic language – no inflections or formal changes, grammatical relationships are shown through word order, such as Chinese and Vietnamese

u      Synthetic language – grammatical relationships are expressed by changing the internal structure of the words, typically by changing the inflectional endings, such as English and German

u      Agglutinating language – words are built out of a long sequence of units, with each unit expressing a particular grammatical meaning, such as Japanese and Turkish

 

l        The myth of language – language origin

 

n        The Biblical account

u      Language was God’s gift to human beings.

n        The bow-wow theory

u      Language was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of animals, like quack, cuckoo.

n        The pooh-pooh theory

u      Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain or joy.

n        The yo-he-ho theory

u      Language arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in joint labour or effort – lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.

n        The evolution theory

u      Language originated in the process of labour and answered the call of social need.

 

l        What is linguistics?

 

n        Linguistics is the scientific study of language.

u      Observing & questioning

u      Formulating hypotheses

u      Verifying the hypotheses

u      Proposing a theory

n        Branches of linguistics

u      Internal branches: intra-disciplinary divisions

l        Phonetics

l        Phonology

l        Morphology

l        Syntax

l        Semantics

u      External branches: inter-disciplinary divisions

l        Pragmatics

l        Psycholinguistics

l        Sociolinguistics

l        Applied linguistics

l        Computational linguistics

l        Neurolinguistics

n        Features of linguistics

u      Descriptive

u      Dealing with spoken language

u      Synchronic

 

 

Chapter 2 Phonetics

l        What is phonetics?

 

n        Phonetics is termed as the study of speech sounds.

n        Sub-branches of phonetics

u      Articulatory phonetics – the production of speech sounds

u      Acoustic phonetics – the physical properties of speech sounds

u      Auditory phonetics – the perceptive mechanism of speech sounds

 

l        The speech organs

 

n        Where does the air stream come from?

u      From the lung

n        What is the function of vocal cords?

u      Controlling the air stream

n        What are the cavities?

u      Oral cavity

u      Pharyngeal cavity

u      Nasal cavity

 

l        Transcription of speech sounds

 

n        Units of representation

u      Segments (the individual sounds)

n        Phonetic symbols

u      The widely used symbols for phonetic transcription of speech sounds is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).

u      The IPA attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol and the symbols are enclosed in brackets [ ] to distinguish phonetic transcriptions from the spelling system of a language.

u      In more detailed transcription (narrow transcription) a sound may be transcribed with a symbol to which a smaller is added in order to mark the finer distinctions.

 

l        Description of speech sounds

 

n        Description of English consonants

u      General feature: obstruction

u      Criteria of consonant description

l        Places of articulation

l        Manners of articulation

l        Voicing of articulation

u      Places of articulation

l        This refers to each point at which the air stream can be modified to produce a sound.

n        Bilabial: [p] [b] [m] [w]

n        Labiodental: [f] [v]

n        Interdental: [W] [T]

n        Alveolar: [t] [d] [s] [z] [l] [n] [r]

n        Palatal: [F] [V] [tF] [dV] [j]

n        Velar: [k] [g] [N]

n        Glottal: [h]

u      Manners of articulation

l        This refers to how the air stream is modified, whether it is completely blocked or partially obstructed.

n        Stops: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]

n        Fricatives: [s] [z] [F] [V] [f] [v] [W] [T] [h]

n        Affricates: [tF] [dV]

n        Liquids: [l] [r]

n        Glides: [w] [j]

n        Nasals: [m] [n] [N]

u      Voicing of articulation

l        This refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are produced.

n        Voiced sounds

n        Voiceless sounds

n        Description of English vowels

u      General feature: without obstruction

u      Criteria of vowel description

l        Part of the tongue that is raised

n        Front

n        Central

n        Back

l        Extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate

n        High

n        Mid

n        Low

l        Kind of opening made at the lips

l        Position of the soft palate

u      Single vowels (monophthongs) and diphthongs

 

l        Phonetic features and natural classes

 

n        Classes of sounds that share a feature or features are called natural classes.

n        Major class features can specify segments across the consonant-vowel boundary.

n        Classification of segments by features is the basis on which variations of sounds can be analyzed.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 3 Phonology

l        What is phonology?

 

n        Phonology is the study of sound systems and patterns.

n        Phonology and phonetics are two studies different in perspectives, which are concerned with the study of speech sounds.

n        Phonology focuses on three fundamental questions.

u      What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language?

u      What sounds vary in what ways in what context?

u      What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?

 

l        Phonemes and allophones

 

n        A phoneme is a distinctive, abstract sound unit with a distinctive feature.

n        The variants of a phoneme are termed allophones.

n        We use allophones to realize phonemes.

 

l        Discovering phonemes

 

n        Contrastive distribution – phonemes

u      If sounds appear in the same environment, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.

u      Typical contrastive distribution of sounds is found in minimal pairs and minimal sets.

l        A minimal pair consists of two words that differ by only one sound in the same position.

l        Minimal sets are more than two words that are distinguished by one segment in the same position.

u      The overwhelming majority of the consonants and vowels represented by the English phonetic alphabet are in contrastive distribution.

u      Some sounds can hardly be found in contrastive distribution in English. However, these sounds are distinctive in terms of phonetic features. Therefore, they are separate phonemes.

n        Complementary distribution – allophones

u      Sounds that are not found in the same position are said to be in complementary distribution.

u      If segments are in complementary distribution and share a number of features, they are allophones of the same phoneme.

n        Free variation

u      If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.

 

l        Distinctive and non-distinctive features

 

n        Features that distinguish meaning are called distinctive features, and features do not, non-distinctive features.

n        Distinctive features in one language may be non-distinctive in another.

 

l        Phonological rules

 

n        Phonemes are abstract sound units stored in the mind, while allophones are the actual pronunciations in speech.

n        What phoneme is realized by what allophones in what specific context is another major question in phonology.

n        The regularities that what sounds vary in what ways in what context are generalized and stated in phonology as rules.

n        There are many phonological rules in English. Take the following ones as examples.

l        [+voiced +consonant] – [-voiced]/[-voiced +consonant]_

l        [-voiced +bilabial +stop] – unaspirated/[-voiced +alveolar +fricative]_

 

l        Syllable structure

 

n        A syllable is a phonological unit that is composed of one or more phonemes.

n        Every syllable has a nucleus, which is usually a vowel.

n        The nucleus may be preceded by one or more consonants called the onset and followed by one or more consonants called the coda.

 

l        Sequence of phonemes

 

n        Native speakers of any language intuitively know what sounds can be put together.

n        Some sequences are not possible in English. The impossible sequences are called systematic gaps.

n        Sequences that are possible but do not occur yet are called accidental gaps.

n        When new words are coined, they may fill some accidental gaps but they will never fill systematic gaps.

 

l        Suprasegmental features

 

n        Features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called suprasegmental features.

n        These features are distinctive features.

n        Stress

u      Stress is the perceived prominence of one or more syllabic elements over others in a word.

u      Stress is a relative notion. Only words that are composed of two or more syllables have stress.

u      If a word has three or more syllables, there is a primary stress and a secondary stress.

u      In some languages word stress is fixed, i.e. on a certain syllable. In English, word stress is unpredictable.

n        Intonation

u      When we speak, we change the pitch of our voice to express ideas.

u      Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.

u      The same sentence uttered with different intonation may express different attitude of the speaker.

u      In English, there are three basic intonation patterns: fall, rise, fall-rise.

n        Tone

u      Tone is the variation of pitch to distinguish words.

u      The same sequence of segments can be different words if uttered with different tones.

u      Chinese is a typical tone language.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 4 Morphology

l        What is morphology?

 

n        The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.

n        Words are the smallest free units of language that unite sounds with meaning.

n        Morphology is defined as the study of the internal structure and the formation of words.

 

l        Morphemes and allomorphs

 

n        The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme.

n        A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called allomorphs.

n        “zero” form of a morpheme and suppletives

u      Some countable nouns do not change form to express plurality. Similarly, some regular verbs do not change form to indicate past tense. In these two cases, the noun or verb contains two morphemes, among which there is one “zero form” of a morpheme.

u      Some verbs have irregular changes when they are in past tense. In this case, the verbs also have two morphemes. Words which are not related in form to indicate grammatical contrast with their roots are called suppletives.

 

l        Free and bound morphemes

 

n        Some morphemes constitute words by themselves. These morphemes are called free morphemes.

n        Other morphemes are never used independently in speech and writing. They are always attached to free morphemes to form new words. These morphemes are called bound morphemes.

n        The distinction between a free morphemes and a bound morpheme is whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.

n        Free morphemes are the roots of words, while bound morphemes are the affixes (prefixes and suffixes).

 

l        Inflexional and derivational morphemes

 

n        Inflexional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.

n        Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes added to existing forms to construct new words.

u      English affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.

u      Some languages have infixes, bound morphemes which are inserted into other morphemes.

u      The process of putting affixes to existing forms to create new words is called derivation. Words thus formed are called derivatives.

 

l        Conclusion: classification of morphemes

 

n        Morphemes

u      Free morphemes

u      Bound morphemes

l        Inflexional

l        Derivational: affixes

n        Prefixes: -s, -’s, -er, -est, -ing, -ed, -s

n        Suffixes

 

l        Formation of new words

 

n        Derivation

u      Derivation forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.

u      Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create a derived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes to the word friend, we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness, unfriendliness, etc. This process of adding more than one affix to a free morpheme is termed complex derivation.

u      Derivation does not apply freely to any word of a given category. Generally speaking, affixes cannot be added to morphemes of a different language origin.

u      Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors.

u      Some English suffixes also change the word stress.

n        Compounding

u      Compounding is another common way to form words. It is the combination of free morphemes.

u      The majority of English compounds are the combination of words from the three classes – nouns, verbs and adjectives – and fall into the three classes.

u      In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech of the word.

u      The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of the components.

n        Conversion

u      Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class into another class.

u      Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.

n        Clipping

u      Clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables.

u      Clipped words are initially used in spoken English on informal occasions.

u      Some clipped words have become widely accepted, and are used even in formal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus), vet (veterinarian), gym (gymnasium), fridge (refrigerator) and fax (facsimile) are rarely used in their complete form.

n        Blending

u      Blending is a process that creates new words by putting together non-morphemic parts of existing words. For example, smog (smoke + frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morning, replacing both breakfast and lunch), motel (motor + hotel). There is also an interesting word in the textbook for junior middle school students – “plike” (a kind of machine that is like both a plane and a bike).

n        Back-formation

u      Back-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed from television. Originally, the word television is formed by putting the prefix tele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix –sion in English indicating nouns. Then people consider the –sion in the word television as that suffix and drop it to form the verb televise.

n        Acronyms and abbreviations

u      Acronyms and abbreviations are formed by putting together the initial letters of all words in a phrase or title.

u      Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer than abbreviations, which are read letter by letter.

u      This type of word formation is common in names of organizations and scientific terminology.

n        Eponyms

u      Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or places. For example, the word sandwich is a common noun originating from the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his food between two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambling.

n        Coinage

u      Coinage is a process of inventing words not based on existing morphemes.

u      This way of word formation is especially common in cases where industry requires a word for a new product. For example, Kodak and Coca-cola.

n        For more detailed explanation to the ways of word formation, see my notes of Practical English Grammar.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 5 Syntax

l        What is syntax?

 

n        The term syntax is from the ancient Greek word syntaxis, which literally means “arrangement” or “setting out together”.

n        Traditionally, it refers to the branch of grammar dealing with the ways in which words, with or without appropriate inflexions, are arranged to show connexions of meaning within the sentence.

n        Syntax is a branch of linguistics that analyzes the structure of sentences.

 

l        What is a sentence?

 

n        Syntax is the analysis of sentence structure. A sentence is a sequence of words arranged in a certain order in accordance with grammatical rules.

n        A sequence can be either well-formed or ill-formed. Native speakers of a language know intuitively what strings of words are grammatical and what are ungrammatical.

 

l        Knowledge of sentence structure

 

n        Structural ambiguity

u      Structural ambiguity is one or more string(s) of words has/have more than one meaning. For example, the sentence Tom said he would come yesterday can be interpreted in different ways.

n        Word order

u      Different arrangements of the same words have different meanings. For example, with the words Tom, love and Mary, we may say Tom loves Mary or Mary loves Tom.

n        Grammatical relations

u      Native speakers know what element relates to what other element directly or indirectly. For example, in The boats are not big enough and We don’t have enough boats, the word enough is related to different words in the two sentences.

n        Recursion

u      The same rule can be used repeatedly to create infinite sentences. For example, I know that you are happy. He knows that I know that you are happy. She knows that he knows that I know that you are happy.

n        Sentence relatedness

u      Sentences may be structurally variant but semantically related.

n        Syntactic categories

u      A syntactic category is a class of words or phrases that can substitute for one another without loss of grammaticality. For example, consider the following sentences:

l        The child found the knife.

l        A policeman found the knife.

l        The man who just left here found the knife.

l        He found the knife.

u      All the italicized parts belong to the same syntactic category called noun phrase (NP). The noun phrases in these sentences function as subject. The knife, also a noun phrase, functions as object.

 

l        Traditional grammar

 

n        In traditional grammar, a sentence is considered a sequence of words which are classified into parts of speech.

n        Sentences are analyzed in terms of grammatical functions of words: subjects, objects, verbs (predicates), predicatives, …

n        Compulsory elements of a sentence: subject, verb, object, complement, adverbial…

n        Nouns: number, case, gender…

n        Verbs: tense, aspect, voice…

n        Adjectives and adverbs: comparative and superlative degrees

n        Agreement in number/person/gender

n        Parsing: trying to make detailed analysis in structure

 

l        Structural grammar

 

n        Structural grammar arose out of an attempt to deviate from traditional grammar. It deals with the inter-relationships of different grammatical units. In the concern of structural grammar, words are not just independent grammatical units, but are inter-related to one another.

n        Form class

u      Form class is a wider concept than part of speech in traditional grammar.

u      Linguistic units which can appear in the same slot are said to be in the same form class. For example, a(n), the, my, that, every, etc. can be placed before nouns in English sentences. These words fall into one form class.

u      These linguistic units are observed to have the same distribution.

n        Immediate constituent (IC) analysis

u      Structural grammar is characterized by a top-down process of analysis.

u      A sentence is seen as a constituent structure. All the components of the sentences are its constituents. A sentence can be cut into sections. Each section is its immediate constituent. Then each section can be further cut into constituents. This on-going cutting is termed immediate constituent analysis.

u      Examples:

l        Old men and women: old | men and women, old || men | and women

l        The ||| little || girl | speaks || French.

u      In this way, sentence structure is analyzed not only horizontally but also vertically. In other words, IC analysis can account for the linearity and the hierarchy of sentence structure.

l        I will suggest | that this || in itself reflects ||| a particular ideology |||| about gender ||||| that deserves to be re-examined.

u      Two advantages of IC analysis:

l        It can analyze some ambiguities.

l        It shows linearity and hierarchy of one sentence.

 

l        Transformational-generative (TG) grammar

 

n        Background and the goal of TG grammar

u      Chomsky (1957) – grammar is the knowledge of native speakers.

l        Adequacy of observation

l        Adequacy of description

l        Adequacy of explanation

u      Writing a TG grammar means working out two sets of rules – phrase structure rules and transformation rules – which are followed by speakers of the language.

u      TG grammar must account for all and only grammatical sentences.

n        Syntactic categories

u      Noun Phrase (NP)

u      Verb Phrase (VP)

u      Sentence (S)

u      Determiner (Det)

u      Adjective (Adj)

u      Pronoun (Pro)

u      Verb (V)

u      Auxiliary Verb (Aux)

u      Prepositional Phrase (PP)

u      Adverb (Adv)

n        Phrase structure (PS) rules

u      S NP VP

(Det) (Adj) N

u      NP {

Pro

u      VP (Aux) V (NP) (PP)

u      PP P NP

n        Tree diagrams (omit)

n        Recursion and the infinitude of language

u      S contains NP and VP and that S may be a constituent of NP and VP. NP and PP can be mutually inclusive. If phrasal categories appear on both sides of the arrow in phrase structure rules, the rules are recursive. Recursive rules can be applied again and again, and the phrase structure can grow endlessly.

n        Sub-categorization of the lexicon.

u      The process of putting words of the same lexical category into smaller classes according to their syntactic characteristics is called sub-categorization.

n        Transformational rules (T-rules)

u      Particle movement T-rule

l        John turned the machine off. John turned off the machine.

u      Replacement T-rule

l        John beat Tom. He beat Tom.

l        The house needs repairing (to be repaired).

u      Insertion T-rule

l        A fish is swimming in the pond. There is a fish swimming in the pond.

u      Deletion T-rule

l        They came in and (they) sat down.

u      Copying T-rule

l        He is coming, isn’t he?

l        He has finished his homework, hasn’t he?

u      Reflexivization T-rule

l        I wash me (myself).

n        TG grammar accounts for the mental process of our speaking.

 

l        Systematic-functional grammar

 

n        Background and the goal of systemic-functional grammar

u      M. A. K. Halliday

l        Language is a system of meaning potential and a network of meaning as choices.

l        Meaning determines form, not vice versa. Meaning is realized through forms.

l        The goal of systemic-functional grammar is to see how function and meaning are realized through forms.

l        The three meta-functions of language

n        Ideational function

n        Interpersonal function

n        Textual function

n        The transitivity system of language

u      Elements

l        Process

l        Participants

l        Circumstances

u      Categorization of reality

l        Doing – material process

n        Processes involving physical actions: walking, running, throwing, kicking, wrapping, etc.

n        Actor, goal and circumstance

l        Being – relational process

n        Processes representing a relation being set up between two separate entities.

n        Be (identifying), have (attributive)

n        Carrier/possessor and attribute/possessed

l        Sensing – mental process

n        Processes of sensing, including feeling, thinking, perceiving, imagining, wanting, liking, etc.

n        Senser and phenomenon

l        Less central types of linguistic process

n        Verbal processes – saying something

u      Sayer and receiver

n        Behavioural processes – active conscious processes

u      Behaver and range

n        Existential processes – existence of an entity

u      Existent

n        Mood and modality

u      Mood expresses the speaker’s attitude and serves for interpersonal function. It is a syntactic constituent made up of the subject and the finite.

u      Modality is the degree of certainty or frequency expressed by the grammatical forms of finite. It can be categorized by modalization and modulation.

n        Theme and rheme

u      Theme is the given information, while rheme is the new information.

u      Examples:

l        John | is my friend.

l        He | should have replied to my letter.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 6 Semantics

l        What is semantics?

 

n        Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. However, it is not the only linguistic discipline that studies meaning.

n        Semantics answers the question “what does this sentence mean”. In other words, it is the analysis of conventional meanings in words and sentences out of context.

 

l        Reference and sense

 

n        Linguistic expressions stand in a relation to the world. There are two aspects of meaning.

n        Reference is the relation by which a word picks out or identifies an entity in the world. But the referential theory fails to account for certain kinds of linguistic expression.

u      Some words are meaningful, but they identify no entities in the real world, such as the words dragon, phoenix, unicorn, and mermaid.

u      It is not possible for some words to find referent in the world, such as the words but, and, of, however, the, etc.

u      Speakers of English understand the meaning of a round triangle although there is no such graph.

n        Sense is the relation by which words stand in human mind. It is mental representation, the association with something in the speaker’s or hearer’s mind. The study of meaning from the perspective of sense is called the representational approach.

 

l        Classification of lexical meanings

 

n        Referential meaning (denotative meaning) – central meaning of words, stable, universal

n        Associative meaning – meaning that hinges on referential meaning, less stable, more culture-specific

u      Connotative meaning – the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, embraces the properties of the referent, peripheral

u      Social meaning (stylistic meaning) – what is conveyed about the social circumstances of the use of a linguistic expression

u      Affective meaning – what is communicated of the feeling or attitude of the speaker/writer towards what is referred to

u      Reflected meaning – what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression

l        Taboos

u      Collocative meaning – the associated meaning a word acquires in line with the meaning of words which tend to co-occur with it

 

l        Lexical sense relations

 

n        Synonymy

u      Synonyms are words which have different forms but similar meanings.

l        Dialectal synonyms – lift/elevator, flat/apartment

l        Synonyms of different styles – gentleman/guy

l        Synonyms of different registers – salt/sodium chloride

l        Synonyms differing in affective meaning – attract/seduce

l        Synonyms differing in collocation – beautiful/handsome, able/capable

u      Synonyms are frequently used in speaking and writing as a cohesive device. In order to avoid repetition the writer/speaker needs to use a synonym to replace a word in the previous co-text when he/she wants to continue to address that idea. The synonyms together function to create cohesion of the text.

n        Antonymy

u      Antonyms are words which are opposite in meaning.

l        Gradable antonyms – pairs of words opposite to each other, but the positive of one word does not necessarily imply the negative of the other. For example, the words hot and cold are a pair of antonyms, but not hot does not necessarily mean cold, maybe warm, mild or cool. Therefore, this pair of antonyms is a pair of gradable antonyms.

l        Complementary antonyms – words opposite to each other and the positive of one implies the negative of the other: alive/dead

l        Reversal (relational) antonyms – words that denote the same relation or process from one or the other direction: push/pull, up/down, teacher/student

u      Antonymy is frequently utilized as a rhetorical resource in language use. Oxymoron and antithesis based on antonymy. Gradable antonyms may give rise to fuzziness.

n        Homonymy

u      Homonyms are words which have the same form, but different meanings.

l        Homographs – words which are identical in spelling, but different in meaning and pronunciation: tear [tZE] (v.)/tear [tiE] (n.)

l        Homophones – words which are identical in pronunciation, but different in spelling and meaning: see/sea

l        Full homonyms – words which are identical in spelling and pronunciation, but different in meaning: bear (v. to give birth to a baby/to stand)/bear (n. a kind of animal)

u      Rhetorically, homonyms are often used as puns.

n        Polysemy

u      A polyseme is a word which has several related senses.

u      Polysemy is based on the intuition of native speakers as well as the etymology or history of words.

n        Hyponymy

u      Hyponymy is a relation of inclusion.

u      Tiger, lion, elephant and dog are hyponyms of the word animal. Words like animal are called superordinates.

u      This kind of vertical semantic relation links words in a hierarchical work.

 

l        Componential analysis

 

n        Componential analysis is the approach that analyze word meaning by decomposing it into its atomic features. It shows the semantic features of a word.

n        Examples:

u      Man: +HUMAN +MALE +ADULT

u      Boy: +HUMAN +MALE –ADULT

u      Father: +HUMAN +MALE +ADULT PARENT

u      Daughter: +HUMAN MALE 0ADULT PARENT

 

l        Words and concepts

 

n        Categorization

u      Categorization refers to the process by which people use language to classify the world around and inside them.

u      It is fundamental to human cognition.

u      In the past two decades cognitive psychologists and cognitive linguistics have gained new insights into the nature of categories.

n        Prototypes

u      A prototype is a set that has typical, central features. Others are peripheral features, which are not typical but related.

n        Hierarchies

u      Conceptual network

 

l        Sentencial sense relations – semantic relations of sentences

 

n        Sentences may be related in sense. I will illustrate sense relations within and between sentences.

u      Tautology: The bachelor is unmarried.

u      Contradiction: The bachelor is married.

u      Inconsistency: John is single./John is married.

u      Synonymousness: John broke the glass./The glass was broken by John.

u      Entailment: The meeting was chaired by a spinster./The meeting was chaired by a woman.

u      Presupposition: Sam has returned the book./Sam borrowed the book.

n        These semantic relations are found within or between meaningful sentences. There are sentences which sound grammatical but meaningless. These sentences are said to be semantically anomalous. For example:

u      Colourless green ideas sleep furiously.

u      The pregnant bachelor killed some phonemes.

 

l        Metaphors

 

n        From rhetorical device to cognitive device

u      The classical view sees metaphor as a kind of decorative in addition to ordinary language, a rhetorical device that makes language use colourful.

u      Another view of metaphor, which has become more influential in the past two decades, holds that metaphors are a cognitive device. Metaphor is an essential element in our categorization of the world and our thinking process.

u      Cognitive linguistics has shown that metaphor is not an unusual or deviant way of using language. The use of metaphor is not confined to literature, rhetoric and art. It is actually ubiquitous in everyday communication.

n        The components of metaphors

u      Target domain – tenor

u      Source domain – vehicle

n        Features of metaphors

u      Metaphors are systematic.

u      Metaphors can create similarities between the two domains involved.

u      Metaphors are also characterized by imaginative rationality.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 7 Pragmatics

l        What is pragmatics?

 

n        Pragmatics can be defined as the analysis of meaning in context.

n        Pragmatic analysis of meaning is first and foremost concerned with the study of what is communicated by a speaker/writer and interpreted by a listener/reader.

n        Analysis of intentional meaning necessarily involves the interpretation of what people do through language in a particular context.

n        Intended meaning may or may not be explicitly expressed. Pragmatic analysis also explores how listeners/readers make inferences about what is communicated.

 

l        What are the differences between the two linguistic studies of meaning – semantics and pragmatics?

 

n        Semantics studies literal, structural or lexical meaning, while pragmatics studies non-literal, implicit, intended meaning, or speaker meaning.

n        Semantics is context independent, decontextualized, while pragmatics is context dependent, contextualized.

n        Semantics deals with what is said, while pragmatics deals with what is implicated or inferred.

 

l        Deixis and reference

 

n        Deixis is a word originally from Greek. It means pointing via language. An expression used by a speaker/writer to identify something is called deictic expression.

n        Out of context, we cannot understand sentences containing deictic expressions, because we do not know what these expressions refer to respectively.

n        According to referential content, deixis can be put into person deixis, place deixis, time deixis and discourse deixis.

u      Person deixis: I, we, you, me, he, etc.

u      Place deixis: here, there, above, over, this, that…

l        Proximal and distal terms

n        Proximal terms are used when something is close to the speaker, while distal terms when something is away from the speaker.

u      Time deixis: next…, by…, before…, etc.

l        Tenses: coding time

u      Discourse deixis

l        Anaphoric: backward reference

l        Cataphoric: forward reference

n        The deictic centre – ego-centric centre

 

l        Speech acts

 

n        In linguistic communication, people do not merely exchange information. They actually do something through talking or writing in various circumstances. Actions performed via speaking are called speech acts.

n        Performative sentences

u      Implicit performatives – It’s cold here.

u      Explicit performatives – Please close the door.

n        Types of speech acts

u      Locutionary speech act – the action of making the sentence

u      Illocutionary speech act – the intentions

u      Perlocutionary speech act – the effects

u      Of these dimensions, the most important is the illocutionary act.

n        In linguistic communication people respond to an illocutionary act of an utterance, because it is the meaning intended by the speaker.

n        If a teacher says, “I have run out of chalk” in the process of lecturing, the act of saying is locutionary, the act of demanding for chalk is illocutionary, and the effect the utterance brings about – one of the students will go and get some chalk – is perlocutionary.

n        In English, illocutionary acts are also given specific labels, such as request, warning, promise, invitation, compliment, complaint, apology, offer, refusal, etc. these specific labels name various speech functions.

n        As functions may not correspond to forms, speech acts can be direct and indirect.

u      Searle: two ways of communication (performing acts)

l        Direct speech act: Close the door.

l        Indirect speech act: It’s cold in here.

u      Why do people often speak indirectly in social communication?

l        Different social variables: age, sex, social condition

l        Politeness: communicative strategy

u      Indirect speech acts are related to appropriateness.

l        Indirect speech acts are made for politeness, not vice versa. To make appropriate choices does not necessarily mean indirect speech acts.

 

l        Cooperation and implicature

 

n        Conversational Implicature

u      In our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation are generally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people are talking with each other, they must try to converse smoothly and successfully. In accepting speakers’ presuppositions, listeners have to assume that a speaker is not trying to mislead them. This sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having a conversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withhold relevant information from one another.

u      However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words is called conversational implicature. For example:

[1]   A: Can you tell me the time?

B: Well, the milkman has come.

u      In this little conversation, A is asking B about the time, but B is not answering directly. That indicates that B may also not no the accurate time, but through saying “the milkman has come”, he is in fact giving a rough time. The answer B gives is related to the literal meaning of the words, but is not merely that. That is often the case in communication. The theory of conversational implicature is for the purpose of explaining how listeners infer the speakers’ intention through the words.

u      The study of conversational implicature starts from Grice (1967), the American philosopher. He thinks, in daily communication, people are observing a set of basic rules of cooperating with each other so as to communicate effectively through conversation. He calls this set of rules the cooperative principle (CP) elaborated in four sub-principles (maxims), that is the cooperative principle.

n        The Cooperative Principle

u      Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. The maxims are:

l        Quantity

n        Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange).

n        Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.

l        Quality – Try to make your contribution one that is true.

n        Do not say what you believe to be false.

n        Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

l        Relation – Be relevant.

l        Manner – Be perspicuous.

n        Avoid obscurity of expression.

n        Avoid ambiguity.

n        Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).

n        Be orderly.

u      We assume that people are normally going to provide an appropriate amount of information, i.e. they are telling the relevant truth clearly. The cooperative principle given by Grice is an idealized case of communication.

u      However, there are more cases that speakers are not fully adhering to the principles. But the listener will assume that the speaker is observing the principles “in a deeper degree”. For example:

[2]   A: Where is Bill?

B: There is a yellow car outside Sue’s house.

u      In [2], the speaker B seems to be violating the maxims of quantity and relation, but we also assume that B is still observing the CP and think about the relationship between A’s question and the “yellow car” in B’s answer. If Bill has a yellow car, he may be in Sue’s house.

u      If a speaker violate CP by the principle itself, there is no conversation at all, so there cannot be implicature. Implicature can only be caused by violating one or more maxims.

n        Four Cases of “Violating” the maxims given by Grice and Conversational Implicature

u      The people in conversation may violate one or more maxims secretly. In this way, he may mislead the listener.

l        For this case, in the conversation [2] above, we assume that B is observing the CP and Bill has a yellow car. But if B is intentionally trying to mislead A to think that Bill is in Sue’s house, we will be misled without knowing. In this case, if one “lies” in conversation, there is no implicature in the conversation, only the misleading.

u      He may declare that he is not observing the maxims or the CP.

l        In this kind of situation, the speaker directly declares he is not cooperating. He has made it clear that he does not want to go on with the conversation, so there is no implicature either.

u      He may fall into a dilemma. For example, for the purpose observing the first principle of the maxim of quantity (make your contribution as informative as is required), he may be violating the second principle of the maxim of quality (do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence).

l        For this case, Grice gave an example:

[3]   A: Where does C live?

B: Somewhere in the south of France.

l        In [3], if B knows that A is going to visit C, his answer is violating the maxim of quantity, because he is not giving enough information about where C lives. But he has not declared that he will not observe the maxims. So we can know that B knows if he gives more information, he will violate the principle “do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence”. In other words, he has fallen into a “dilemma”. So we can infer that his implicature is that he does not know the exact address of C. In this case, there is conversational implicature.

u      He may “flout” one or more maxims. In other words, he may be obviously not observing them.

l        The last situation is the typical case that can make conversational implicature. Once the participant in a conversation has made an implicature, he or she is making use one of the maxims. We can see that from the following examples:

[4]   A: Where are you going with the dog?

B: To the V-E-T.

l        In [4], the dog is known to be able to recognize the word “vet” and to hate being taken there. Therefore, A makes the word spelled out. Here he is “flouting” the maxim of manner, making the implicature that he does not want the dog to know the answer to the question just asked.

[5]   (In a formal get-together)

A: Mrs. X is an old bag.

B: The weather has been quite delightful this summer, hasn’t it?

l        B is intentionally violating the maxim of relation in [5], implicating that what A has said is too rude and he should change a topic.

 

l        The politeness principle (PP)

 

n        Leech points out that CP in itself cannot explain why people are often so indirect in conveying what they mean. Grice’s theory of CP is, fundamentally, logic-oriented.

n        Conversational interaction is also social behaviour. Choice of linguistic codes is central in language use. There are social and psychological factors that determine the choice.

n        Besides being cooperative, participants of conversations normally try to be polite. The speakers consider the matter of face for themselves and others. Based on this observation, Leech proposes the politeness principle (PP), which contains six maxims.

u      Tact

l        Minimize cost to other.

l        Maximize benefit to other.

u      Generosity

l        Minimize benefit to self.

l        Maximize cost to self.

u      Approbation

l        Minimize dispraise of other.

l        Maximize praise of other.

u      Modesty

l        Minimize praise of self.

l        Maximize dispraise of self.

u      Agreement

l        Minimize disagreement between self and other.

l        Maximize agreement between self and other.

u      Sympathy

l        Minimize antipathy between self and other.

l        Maximize sympathy between self and other.

n        The maxims expressed in terms of maximize entail the concept of gradience in politeness. The tact maxim expressed in terms of cost and benefit can be exemplified by the following:

u      Clean the rooms.                Cost to H         Less polite

u      Get some chalks for me.                        

u      Look at the map.

u      Take a seat.

u      Enjoy your trip.                               

u      Have another cup of coffee.         Benefit to H         More polite

n        Cost to hearer:

u      Peel the potatoes.             More direct         Less polite

u      Can you peel the potatoes?                          

u      Will you peel the potatoes?                          

u      Would you possibly peel …?       Less direct         More polite

n        Benefit to hearer:

u      Would you have another sandwich?   Less direct         Less polite

u      Will you have another sandwich?                       

u      Have another sandwich.                             

u      You must have another sandwich.      More direct         More polite

n        Politeness and appropriateness

u      Distance, power, situational context

n        Relation between CP and PP

u      The PP is the superordinate principle standing above the CP. The PP overrides the CP.

u      People sometimes violate the CP in order to follow the PP.

 

l        A general introduction to the principle of relevance (RP)

 

n        From the four maxims of CP to the RP

u      The code model

l        Communication is a process of coding and decoding.

u      The inferential model

l        Communication is a process of producing and interpreting, or coding and inferring.

n        Theoretical assumptions

u      General law: to use the minimal effort for the maximal effect for human behaviour.

u      To communicate is to claim others’ attention.

u      Contractual effect/processing effort = relevance

n        The theory of RP introduced here is only a tiny part. For further study, please search the web from google.

 

l        Conversational implicature

 

n        What is a conversation?

u      A conversation is changing ideas, or conversing.

u      Conversation is the basic form of speech in human communication.

u      Conversation is the dialogic form in spoken and written discourse.

n        Analysis of conversation

u      The global analysis – to analyze the whole structure, the whole process of a conversation.

u      The local analysis – to understand the internal structure of a conversation, the turn-taking.

l        Turn-taking

n        Turn-taking refers to having the right to speak by turns.

n        Conversations normally follow the pattern of “I speak – you speak – I speak – you speak”, if there are two participants.

n        Any possible change-of-turn point is called a transition relevance place (TRP).

n        One speaks (takes the floor), the other listens.

l        Adjacency pair

n        Adjacency pairs are a fundamental unit of conversational structure.

n        Greeting/greeting, question/answer, invitation/acceptance, offer/decline, complaint/denial are common cases of adjacency pairs.

l        Insertion sequence

n        Not all first parts are immediately followed by second parts. It often occurs that the answer is delayed by another pair of question and answer. Look at the following example:

-         May I have a bottle of Mich? (Q1)

-         Are you over 21? (Q2)

-         No. (A2)

-         No. (A1)

n        The second part of adjacency pair is violated here.

n        A conversation sometimes is organized in a preferential way.

l        Pre-sequence

n        Pre-invitation

n        Pre-request

n        Pre-announcement

l        Post-sequence

n        Explanation

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 8 Language in Social Contexts

l        What is sociolinguistics?

 

n        The sociolinguistic study of language

u      Language in relation to society

u      Diversity of language, variation between societies or within a society

n        The distinction between “language” and “a language”

u      Try to answer the following three questions:

l        Can language be defined in terms of geography?

l        Can language be defined in terms of nationality?

l        Should language be defined by mutual intelligibility?

u      The answer to these questions should all be no. All languages are equal. If you define language in terms of these factors, you are speaking of “a language”.

 

l        Varieties of language

 

n        A language varies according to the following factors:

u      Situation

u      Geographical areas

u      Social factors

u      Purposes and subject matters

u      Time (through which the language develops)

n        Geographical varieties and regional dialects

u      What’s the relationship between a regional dialect and the national standard speech?

l        A regional dialect is a variety of the national standard speech.

u      Accent

l        Pronunciation:

l        Spelling: -our/-or

l        Vocabulary:

l        Grammar: have you/do you have…

u      Social varieties

l        Sociolects are forms of a language that characterize the speech of different social classes.

l        A social variety is a variety of language brought about by the social factors.

l        Language plays the role of a social indicator.

l        Social classes and variation

n        Grammar: third person singular

n        Pronunciation: popular contracted forms

l        Sex and variation

n        Women tend to speak more standard, decent variation.

n        Women tend to make overstatements, especially when making comment.

n        Women prefer to use certain adjectives which are not used normally.

n        Women tend to avoid the use of vulgar words.

n        Women tend to use certain expressions to show happiness or surprise.

l        Age and variation

l        Race and variation

n        Racial difference

n        Black English

-         Pronunciation

-         Grammar

l        Temporal dialects

n        Standard dialect and idiolect

u      Standard dialect is the highest prestige in a society or a nation. It is usually based on the well-educated speech.

l        It is used in news media and literature.

l        It is described in dictionaries and grammar books.

l        It is taught in schools and to non-native learners.

u      Idiolect is the language system of an individual. It is one’s particular way of speaking and/or writing.

n        Register – situational variety

u      Register is a speech variety which changes according to the situation where language is used. Usually it is shared by a group of people, such as lawyers, doctors, stamp collectors, etc.

u      To know how to use a register means to know how to use language appropriately.

u      Register is analyzed on three dimensions: field, mode and tenor. Field is concerned with why and about what we communicate; mode is related to how we communicate; tenor is about with whom we communicate.

 

l        Formality

 

n        Frozen

n        Formal

n        Consultative

n        Casual

n        Intimate

 

l        Language in contact

 

n        Throughout history no natural language is pure or free from the influence of other languages. Due to trade, war, colonization and other causes languages may come into contact. When this occurs, mixed codes may come into being, which are called pidgins and creoles.

u      The term pidgin is the label for the code used by people who speak different languages. A pidgin is not the native language of any group.

u      A creole is a mixed language which has become the mother tongue of a speech community.

n        Bilingualism and multilingualism are normal in many parts of the world today.

n        Bilingualism gives rise to code-switching and code-mixing. The former refers to the fact that a speaker changes from one language to the other in different situations or when talking about different topics. The latter refers to the change from one language to the other language within the same utterance.

 

l        Taboos and euphemisms

 

n        Taboo refers to a prohibition on the use of, mention of, or association with particular objects, actions, or persons. Euphemism is an expression that substitutes one which may be seen as offensive or disturbing to the addressee.

n        Taboo and euphemism are actually two sides of the same coin.

n        What is taboo or not taboo depends on the context.

 

l        A brief introduction to a hot topic nowadays: language and culture

 

n        What is culture?

u      Nature is material, while culture is spiritual.

u      Linguistic relativity

n        Language is part of culture, a carrier of culture.

u      Language is a product of our social life.

u      Language is the principal mean by which culture is passed down.

u      Language reflects the way of thinking. Mental activities depend on linguistic activity.

n        Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (relationship between language and culture)

u      Determinism

l        Language determines our way of thinking.

u      Relativism (linguistic relativity)

n        For further study of this hot topic, refer to the book Language and Culture written by Claire Kramsch

 

l        Competence

 

n        Linguistic competence: grammaticality, presented by Chomsky

n        Communicative competence: four components

u      Grammaticality

u      Acceptability

u      Appropriateness

u      Effectiveness

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 9 Second Language Acquisition (SLA)

l        What is SLA?

 

n        What is language acquisition?

u      The natural process of children’s language development.

u      It is different from language learning.

u      Four stages of language acquisition

l        Babbling – holophrastic – two-word – telegraphic

n        What is second language acquisition (SLA)?

u      SLA is learning a language in F2 (the language being learnt) language environment.

u      It is different from foreign language learning, which is learning a language in F1 language environment.

u      The major difference is the environment.

n        Foreign language teaching (FLT) and second language teaching (SLT)

n        SLA theory

 

l        Factors affecting SLA

 

n        External factors: social factors

u      Social demand

u      Language policy

n        Internal factors: learner factors

u      Motivation

l        Instrumental

l        Integrative

u      Age

u      Learning strategy

l        Cognitive

n        Repetition

n        Translation

n        Note-taking

l        Metacognitive

n        Organizing

n        Self-monitoring

n        Self-evaluation

u      Personality

u      Attitude

 

l        Analysis of learners’ language

 

n        Why analyze?

u      Learners’ language provides data for research into the nature of the learning process. In order to gain insight into the process, researchers have engaged in the analysis of learners’ language.

n        How to analyze?

u      Contrastive analysis

l        Compare the target language with the mother tongue.

u      Error analysis

l        Identifying errors

n        Errors are due to the fault in knowledge of the speaker, while mistakes are because of unsuccessful performance.

l        Describing errors

n        Omission

-         He came into _ classroom with a book in _ hand.

n        Addition/wordy

-         My child goes to his school.

n        Selection

-         I hope/wish…

n        Disordering

-         I yesterday went to … (I, yesterday, went to …/I went to … yesterday)

l        Explaining errors and analyzing reason

n        Interlingual factors

-         Mother tongue’s influence

n        Intralingual factors

-         Overgeneralization

-         Simplification

-         Cross-association

l        Limitation for error analysis

n        Fail to see what learners’ language will be like if we focus on the errors.

u      Interlanguage

l        Approximate language system

l        Transitional language

l        Language transfer – to borrow language from L1

n        Positive transfer: L1 does help

n        Negative transfer: L1 misleads

l        Learners extend patterns by analogy – overgeneralized mistakes (overextension).

l        Communicative strategy

 

l        Explaining SLA

 

n        Nativist theories

u      Chomsky: LAD system

u      Krashen: monitor theory

u      Input hypothesis (i + 1 hypothesis)

n        Environmentalist theories

u      Cultural awareness

u      Theoretical perspective (language outlook)

u      Confidence and competence

n        Functionalist theories

u      Language use

u      Communicative strategies (CS)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 10 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching (FLT)

l        FLT as a system

 

n        Government planning

n        Syllabus design and material development

n        Classroom teaching

n        Evaluation

 

l        Contribution of linguistics: applications and implications

 

n        Applications

u      Linguistic description can be directly used as input into syllabus and material development.

n        Implications

u      There is an indirect relationship between linguistics and FLT.

l        Contents: what to teach?

l        Methodology: how to teach?

u      What we learn from a certain theory is helpful in deciding those.

 

l        The role of a teacher

 

n        Organizer

n        Language user

 

For further study, refer to my notes of Teaching Method.

define the following terms:

1. design feature:are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.

2. function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,etc.Language functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function,interpersonal function,performative function,emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.

3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.

4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.

5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.

6. diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.

7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.

8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,i.e.laying down rules for language use.

9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.

10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.

11. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.

12. displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication.

13. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.

14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.

15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,et

16. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.

17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.

18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.

19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).

20 Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.

21 Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.

22 Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.

23 Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.

24 Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.

25 Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.

26 Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.

III. Functions of language – three meta-functions

1. The ideational function – To identify things, to think, or to record information.

2. The interpersonal function – To get along in a community.

3. The textual function – To form a text.

IV. Types of language

1. Genetic classification (omit)

2. Typological classification

(1) Analytic language – no inflections or formal changes, grammatical relationships are shown through word order, such as Chinese and Vietnamese

(2) Synthetic language – grammatical relationships are expressed by changing the internal structure of the words, typically by changing the inflectional endings, such as English and German

(3) Agglutinating language – words are built out of a long sequence of units, with each unit expressing a particular grammatical meaning, such as Japanese and Turkish

V. The myth of language – language origin

1. The Biblical account – Language was God’s gift to human beings.

2. The bow-wow theory – Language was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of animals, like quack, cuckoo.

3. The pooh-pooh theory – Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain or joy.

4. The yo-he-ho theory – Language arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in joint labour or effort – lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.

5. The evolution theory – Language originated in the process of labour and answered the call of social need.

VI. What is linguistics?

1. Linguistics is the scientific study of language.

(1) Observing & questioning

(2) Formulating hypotheses

(3) Verifying the hypotheses

(4) Proposing a theory

2. Branches of linguistics

(1) Internal branches: intra-disciplinary divisions

a. Phonetics

b. Phonology

c. Morphology

d. Syntax

e. Semantics

(2) External branches: inter-disciplinary divisions

a. Pragmatics

b. Psycholinguistics

c. Sociolinguistics

d. Applied linguistics

e. Computational linguistics

f. Neurolinguistics

3. Features of linguistics

(1) Descriptive

(2) Dealing with spoken language

(3) Synchronic

71. communicative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.

72. ideational function: the speaker’s experience of the real world,including the inner world of his own consciousness.

73. interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles,which include the communication roles created by language itself;and also for getting things done,by means of the interaction between one person and another..

74. textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.

75. conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.

76. denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.

77. connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.

78. reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.

79. reference: the use of anguage to express a proposition,i.e. to talk about things in context.

80. sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.

81. synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.

82. complentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely,such as male,female,absent.

83. gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable,such as long:short,big;small,fat;thin,etc.

84. converse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition,such as buy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.

85. relational opposites:converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations,temporal and spatial relations.There are always two entities involved.One presupposes the other. The shorter,better;worse.etc are instances of relational opposites.

86. hyponymy: a relation between tow words,in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)

87. superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy,i.e.the class name.A superordinate usually has several hyponyms.Under animal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc,

88. semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values,e.g<+human>

89. compositionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.

90. selection restriction:semantic restrictions of the noun phrases that a particular lexical item can take,e.g.regret requires a human subject.

91. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of the truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.

92. proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.

93. predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.

94. assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.

95. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full and independent”recognistion element”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.

96. context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.

97. frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.

98. inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone has said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinary sense,e.g.in a specific context.

99. immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.

100. language perception:language aware

101. language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.

102. language production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.

103. language production: a goal-directed activity,in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.

104. lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.

105. macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.

106. modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.

107. parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.

108. propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.

109. psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).

110. psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.

111. schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.

112. story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.

113. writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng.

114. communicative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set of rules,conventions,etc.governing the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.

115. gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”

116. linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,i.e.language determines thought.

117. linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.

118. linguistic ***ism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.

119. sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.

120. sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.

121. variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers’social starts and phonological variations.

122. performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.

123. constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.

124. locutionary act: the act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon,and phonology.Namely.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.

125. illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.

126. perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.

127. conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.

128. entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other:e.g.”Mary is running”entails,among other things,”Mary is not standing still”.

129. ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.

130. communicative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.

131. relevance: a property that any utterance,or a proposition that it communicates,must,in the nature of communication,necessarily have.

 语言学冲刺笔记6

132. Q-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale,i.e.Make your contribution necessary (G.Relation,Quantity2,Manner);Say no more than you must(given Q).

133. division of pragmatic labour: the use of a marked crelatively complex and/or expression when a corresponding unmarkeda(simpler,less”effortful”)alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message(one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed).

134. constraints on Horn scales:the hearer-based o-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to..

135. third-person narrator: of the narrator is not a character in the fictional world,he or she is usually called a third –person narrator.

136. I-narrator: the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story,relating the story after the event.

137. direct speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.

138. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.

139. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation which is an amalgam of direct speech.

140. narrator’s repreaentation of speech acts: a minimalist kind of presentation in which a part of passage can be seen as a summery of a longer piece of discourse,and therefore even more backgruonded than indirect speech representation would be.

141. narrator”srepresentation of thought acts: a kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their of characters are exactly as that used to present speech acts.For example,,she considered his unpunctuality.

142. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he woule be late.

143. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.

144. narrator’s representation of thought acts:a kind of the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of therir characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.

145. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he would be late.

146. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.

147. narrator”s representation of thought: the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.

148. free indirect thought: the categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech,e.g.He was bound to be late.

149. direct thought: categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech..

150. computer system: the machine itself together with a keyboard,printer,screen,disk drives,programs,etc.

 

151. computer literacy: those people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of computers and computer software.

152. computer linguistics: a branch of applied liguistics,dealing with computer processing of human language.

153. Call: computer-assisted language learning(call),refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language.

154. programnded instruction: the use of computers to monitor student progress,to direct students into appropriate lessons,material,etc.

155. local area network: are computers linked together by cables in a classroom,lab,or building.They offer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time and experience with target language.

156. CD-ROM: computer disk-read only memory allows huge amount of information to be stored on one disk with quich access to the information.Students and teachers can access information quickly and efficiently for use in and out of the classroom.

157. machine translation: refers to the use of machine(usually computer)to translate texts from one language to another.

158. concordance: the use of computer to search for a particular word,sequence of words.or perhaps even a part of speech in a text.The computer can also receive all examples of a particular word,usually in a context,which is a further aid to the linguist.It can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered.

159. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated-it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information,

160. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated—it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information.

161. informational retrieval: the term conventionally though somewhat inaccurately,applied to the type of actrvity discussed in this volume.An information retrieval system does not infor(i.e.change the knowledge of)the user on the subject of his inquiry.it merely informs on the existence(or non-existence)and whereabouts of documents relating to his request.

162. document representative: information structure is concerned with exploiting relationships,between documents to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of retrieval strategies.It covers specifically a logical organization of information,such as document representatives,for the purpose of information retrieval.

163. precision: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.

164. recall: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.

165. applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to study of second and foreign language learning and teaching,and other areas such as translation,the compiling of dictionaries,etc

166. communicative competence: as defined by Hymes,the knowledge and ability involved in putting language to communicative use.

167. syllabus:the planning of course of instruction.It is a description of the cousr content,teaching procedures and learning experiences.

168. interlanguage:the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language,i.e.the language system between the target language and the learner’s native language.

169. transfer: the influence of mother tongue upon the second language.When structures of the two languages are similar,we can get positive transfer of facilitation;when the two languages are different in structures,negative transfer of inference occurs and result in errors.

170. validity: the degree to which a test meansures what it is meant to measure.There are four kinds of validity,i.e.content validity,construct validity,empirical valiodity,and face validity.

171. rebiability: can be defined as consistency.There are two kinds of reliability,i.e.stability reliability,and equiralence reliability.

172. hypercorrection: overuse of a standard linguistic features,in terms of both frequency,i.e.overpassing the speakers of higher social status,and overshooting the target,i.e.extending the use of a form inalinguistic environment where it is not expected to occur,For example,pronouncing ideas as[ai’dier],extending pronouncing post-vocalic/r/ in an envorienment where it’s not supposed to occur.

173. discrete point test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of phonology,syntax and lexis.

174. integrative test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of phonology,syntax and lexis.

 

 



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