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谈语言学(On Linguistics)
其它网站相关链接:
学点语言学
赵宝斌 编辑整理
语言学是对语言的系统研究，对于一个学习英语的人来说，应该懂一点语言学的知识，它可以在理论上对学习语言有指导作用，有助于更好的学习语言，下面介绍一点语言学知识。
I. Introduction
1. What is Language
Language is a system of arbitrary
vocal symbols used for human communication.
2. What is Linguistics(语言学)
Linguistics is the scientific study
of language.
3.Some Basic Distinctions(区分) in
Linguistics
3.1 Speech and Writing
One general principle(原则) of linguistic
analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language
new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have.
3.2 Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性)
A linguistic study is descriptive
if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if
it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.
3.3 Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时)
Studies
The description of a language at some
point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language
as it changes through time is a diachronic study.
3.4 Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)
This is a distinction made by the
Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）early last century. langue refers
to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech
community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization
of langue.
3.5 Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)
Competence is the ideal language user's
knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual
realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).
4.The Scope of Linguistics
General linguistics is the study of
language as a whole.
Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics
which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods
for their description, classification and transcription.
Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics
which studies the sound patterns of languages.
Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics
which studies the form of words.
Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics
which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.
Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics
which studies the meaning of language.
Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the
study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.
Sociolinguistics is the study of the
relationship between language and society.
Psycholinguistics is the study of
the relationship between language and the mind.
Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the
study of language changes.
Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学)
uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation
and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs
of man.
Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the
neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.
Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies
the mathematical features of language, often employing models and
concepts of mathematics.
Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is
an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念)
are applied, often with the aid of a computer.
II. Phonetics(语音学）
1. scope of phonetics
Speech sounds may be studied from different
angles, thus we have at least three branches of phonetics:
Articulatory phonetics(发音语音学）we may
examine the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which
vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate(协调） in the process.
Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学）we may look
into the impression a speaker makes on the hearer as mediated(调节）
by the ear, the auditory nerve(神经） and the brain.
Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学） we study
the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted（传送） between
mouth and ear.
2. The vocal organs
The vocal organs may be viewed as consisting
of three parts, the initiator of the air-stream,(气流发生器官） the producer
of voice（声音发生器官） and the resonating cavities.（声音共振器官）
3. Consonants(辅音）
Places of articulation(发音部位）: bilabial,(双唇）
Labiodentals,（唇齿） dental,（齿） alveolar,（齿龈） retroflex,（卷舌） palate-alveolar,（上齿龈）
palatal,（上颚） velar,（软腭） uvular,（小舌） glottal(声门）
Manners of articulation: plosive,（暴破）
nasal,（鼻音） trill,（颤音） lateral,（边音） fricative,（摩擦） approximant,（近似音）
affricate（破擦）
4. Vowels (元音）
The classification of vowels: the height
of tongue raising (high, mid, low), the position of the highest part
of the tongue(front, central, back), and the degree of lip rounding(rounded,
unrounded)
III. Phonology（音韵学）
1. phonemes(音素）：a distinctive(有区别的）
sound in a language.
2. Allophones(音位变体）：The nondistinctive
sounds are members of the same phoneme.
3. Minimal pairs(最小对立体）： word forms
which differ from each other only by one sound.
4. Free variation (自由变异）：If two sounds
occurring in the same environment(环境）, they does not
produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation
of the same word.
5. Complementary distribution(补充分类）：Not
all the speech sounds occur in the same environment. When two sounds
never occur in the same environment
6.Suprasegmental phonology(超音段音位）：the
study of phonological properties(性质） of units lager than the segment-phoneme.
They are syllable(音节）， stress,（重音） word stress, sentence stress. pitch
（音调）and intonation（语调）.
IV. Morphology（词法）
1. inflection(构形法）：the grammatical
relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes.(屈折词缀）
2. Word-formation(构词）：the processes(过程）
of word variations signaling lexical relationships.（表明词法关系） They are
compound(合成）and derivation (派生）.
3. Morpheme(词素）： the smallest unit
in terms of relationship between expression and content.
4. Allomorph(同质异象变体）： some morphemes
have considerable variation, for instance, alternate shapes or phonetic
forms.
5. Types of morphemes: They are roots,(词根）
affix（词缀） and stem（词干）.
6. Lexicon(语言词汇）：in its most general
sense, is synonymous with vocabulary.
7. Closed-class words(封闭性） and open-class
words(开放性）：the former whose membership is fixed or limited and the
latter whose membership is in principle(实际上） indefinite or unlimited.
8. Word class(词性）：It displays a wider
range of more precisely defined classes.
9. Lexeme(词位）：the smallest unit in
the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other
smaller units.
10. Idiom(习语，成语）：Most phrasal lexemes
are idioms. It is especially true for a sequence of words(词序） which
is semantically（语义上） and often syntactically(句法上） restricted.（限制）
11. Collocation(搭配）： the habitual(习惯的）
co-occurrences （同时出现）of individual lexical items.
V. Syntax (句法）
1. Positional relation or word order（词序）：the
sequential(顺序） arrangement of words in a language.
2. Construction or constituent (句子结构）：
the overall process of internal (内部）organization of a grammatical
unit .
3. Syntactic function(句法功能）： the relationship
between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern
in which it is used. The names of functions are expressed in terms
of subjects, objects, predicates, modifiers,(修饰语） complements（补语）,
etc.
4. Category(范畴）：It refers to classes
and functions in its narrow sense, e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate,
noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. The categories of the noun include
number, gender, case and countability.
5. Phrase: a single element of structure
containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure
typical of clause.
6. Clause: a group of words with its
own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence.
7. Sentence: It is the minimum part
of language that expresses a complete thought.
VI. Semantics
1. Conceptualism or mentalism (概念主义）：Following
F. De Saussure(索学尔）'s "sign" theory, the linguistic sign
is said to consist of a signifier （所指）and signified（被指）, i.e., a sound
image and a concept, liked by a psychological（心理的） "associative"
bond.（相关联系）
2. Mechanism(机械主义）：Some linguists,
Bloomfield,(布鲁费尔德） for example, turned to science to counter（反）-act
the precious theories and this leads to what call the mechanistic
approach（方法）. The nature of this theory has nothing to do with the
scientific study of mental phenomena.（智力现象）
3. Contextualism （语境主义）：It is based
on the presumption(假定） that one can derive meaning from or reduce
it to observable context.
4. Behaviorism (行为主义）：Behaviourists
attempt to define (定义）the meaning of a language form as "the
situation(情景） in which the speaker utters（说话） it and the response（反应）
it calls forth in the hearer."
5. functionalism (功能主义）：Functionalists
as represented (代表）by the Prague school（布拉格学派） linguists and neo-Firthian
（新弗斯）linguists, approach the problem from an entirely new orientation（方法）
. They argue（争辩） that meaning could only be interpreted（解释）
from its use or function in social life.
6. Sense relationships: While reference
deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements, words,
sentences, etc.,and the non-linguistic world of experience, sense
relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the
linguistic elements themselves. They include synonymy(同义词），antonymy(反义词）,hyponymy(下层次）Polysemy(一词多义）and
Homonymy (同音异义词）
7. Semantic analysis: It includes 1)
componential（成分） analysis which defines the meaning of a lexical element
in terms of semantic components.(意义成分）2) predication (表述）analysis
in which the meaning of a sentence is not merely the sum of the meanings
of the words which compose it. 3) relational components in which the
semantic analysis of some words presents a complicated picture, because
they show relations between two and perhaps more terms.
VII. Language Variation (语言变化）
1. Lexical change(词汇的变化）：changes in
lexis.
2. Invention: (新造词）new entities.
3. Compounding:(合成词）New words are sometimes constructed by combining
two old words.
4. Blending: (混合词）：It is a relatively complex form of compounding,
in which two roots are blended by joining the initial part of the
first root and the final part of the second root, or by joining the
initial parts of the two roots.
5. Abbreviation or clipping:(缩写）A new word is created by cutting the
final part or cutting the initial part.
6. acronym:(取首字母的缩写词）It is made up from the first letters of the name
of an organization, which has a heavily modified (修饰） headword.
7. Metanalysis:(再分化）It refers to a process through which a division
is made where there were note before.
8. Back-formation:(逆构词） It refers to an abnormal(非正常） type of word-formation
where a shorter word
is derived by deleting(去掉） an imagined affix from a longer form already
present in the language.
9. Analogical creation:(类比造词）It can account for（说明） the co-existence
of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation(结合） of some
English verbs.
10. Borrowing（借用）：English in its development has managed to widen
her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages.
11. Phonological change(音变）：It is related to language variation in
the phonological system of language. It includes loss,(省音） addition,（加音）
assimilation,（ 同化）dissimilation.（异化）
12. Grammatical change: Changes in both morphology（词法） and syntax（句法）
are listed under this heading.
13. Semantic change:(语义变化）It includes broadening,（语义扩大） narrowing,（语义缩小）
meaning shift,（意义转化） class shift（词性转换） and folk etymology.（词源变化）
14. Orthographic change ：(正字法）Changes can also be found at the graphetic
level.
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