连词解释
一.because,for,since,as,的区别
because语气强,表示客观必然原因:
He is absent, because he is ill. 因为生病,所以他没来。
比较:He is absent, for he is busy. (“生病”是“缺席”的必然原因,“忙”不是必然原因。)
for 语气轻,表示非客观必然的原因,是主观可改变结果的原因,甚至是猜测可能的原因:
He must be ill, for he is absent. “缺席”不一定是“生病”,只是交流猜测。
for 不能放句首,它是并列连词.
since,as 都是不讲自明的原因,是已知的原因.
Since I am a boy, let me carry the case.
As you don't feel well,you had better stay at home.
1.我不进去了,因为我爸爸在里面. I won't go in .for my father is there.
2.昨晚一定是下雨了,因为地很湿. It must have rained last night,for the ground is web.
3.地是湿的,因为昨晚下雨了. The ground is wet, because it rained last night.
4.因为不高兴,他不想出去了. He diden't wanted to go out,for he was unhappy.
5.既然你工作忙,你就不必跟我们一道去了。 Since/As you are busy, you had better not go with us.
6.他付给我比别人少的钱,因为我是个女的. He paid me less than the others, for I'm female.
7.他付给我比别人少的钱,仅仅因为我是个女的. He paid me less than the others, only because I'm female.
8.既然大家都在这,我们开始开会吧. Since everybody is here,let's begin our meeting.
二.when,while,as引导时间状语时的异同.
when,表示时间点,时间段都可以.如状语是短暂动作时,多用when,是时间段时则三个连词都可以.
When/While/As I was walking in the street,I met a friend of mine.
只能用when 的句型:
1.放句中,主句是进行时,从句是短暂动作,表示这时突然
I was reading in the room, when a girl shouted for help.我正在房间看书,这时突然听到有一个女孩喊救命!
2.从句是短暂动作:When I got up, I heard the bell ring. 当我起床的时候,我听见铃响了。
只能用while的句型:
1.表示对立予盾的对比,这时while相当于but。
I am poor while you are rich.我很穷,你却很富有。
Tom is strong,while John is weak. 汤姆很强壮,而约翰很瘦弱。
2.表示“趁着还来得及的时候,赶快....
趁热打铁.Strike while it is hot.
趁着老师还在教室,你赶快去问他吧. You should go to ask the teacher while he is still in.
只能用as的句型:
1.一边....一边...稳定的动作当从句,不稳定的动作当主句
他一边洗澡一边吹口哨. He whistled as he had a bath.
我一边看书一边听音乐. I listened to music as I read.
2.正如....所知道,预料的一样.... as 在此是关系代词,不能用which代替.
正如众所周知的一样,地球是圆的. As everybody can see,the earth is round.
正如我们预料的那样,他失败了。He failed as we had expected.
正如我们所预料的一样,中国足球队赢了印尼. As we had expected,Chinese Football Team betean Indian
3.随着时间的发展,某事变得......
As thirty years passed by,my mother's hair became gray. 三十年过去了,妈妈的头发成了银色。
As morden industry develops,more and more waste produces. 随着工业的发展,垃圾制造得越来越多。
三.as 与like的区别
1.表示象...一样时,as接从句,like 接短语
Do everything as I do. 象我一样做。
He is/looks like his mother. 他长得像他妈妈。
2.as当介词接短语时,表示作为...不是象...一样的意思.like 当动词时,是喜欢的意思,不要搞混为象...
We should study as Lenin studied. 我们应该像列宁那样学习。
As a League Member,I should take everything in the lead. 作为一名团员,我应该起带头作用。
三.untill,
I'll not go untill the bell rings.
unless 条件I'll not go unless you go.除非你走我才走。
肯定句延续I waited untill he came 我一直等到他来。
He lived here until he was 90. 在90岁之前他一直住在这。
I didn't leave untill he came.直到他来我才走。
短暂not until,
I won't stay with you unless you drive the dog out.除非你把狗赶跑,否则我不会和你呆在一起。
四.and,but,however,yet,
顺趋势自然而然发展He studied hard and became a college student.
逆趋势转折He studied hard, but failed in the exam.
中间有逗号,语气轻用however He studied hard, however,he failed in the exam.
不能用but He studied hard, yet he failed in the exam.
Althought he studied hard, yet he failed in the exam.(yet可以与although,though连用,but不能。
五.就近原则,对称原则,附加不理原则
谓语动词就最近距离主语原则:
Either he or his parents (is, are) wrong.
Either you or he (is, are) wrong.
(Is, Are) you or he wrong?
连词后成分对称原则:
Both ....and, neither....nor, not only.....but also.......
She can (either sing, sing either)English songs or Chinese songs.
She can (either sing, sing either)English songs or dance well.
with后名词附加不影响谓语原则
He as well as his wife and daughters (like, likes) music very much.
He with his sons (get, gets )up early every day.
I but you (are, am)wrong.
Money is a good servant but a bad master.
金钱是个好仆人,又是个坏主人.
第一部分:连词分类
连词,主要是包括并列连词和从属连词。在句子中,连词起连接词与词、短语与短语及句子和句子的作用。它本身在句子里不单独做句子成分。
并列连词:是用来连接语法地位相同的结构、相同的单词、短语及句子。
并列连词有:and, but, or, nor, so, for yet, however, as well as, both...and, not only...but also, either...or, neither...nor, still,
从属连词:用来引导状语从句。
从属连词有:after, when, before, as, while, since, until, till, if, unless, lest, because, than, that, whether, so that, in order that, as if, as though, although, suppose that, provided, that, as...as, now that, such...that, in case that, on condition that
第二部分:连词的用法
在明确的我们的目标之后,我们来具体看看这些连词的用法。
并列连词:
并列连词 作用 举例
and 连接单词 My brother and I study in the same school.
连接短语 Our knowledge may come from the books and from practice.
连接句子 We are singing and they are dancing.
But, or I have a pen but no pencil.
Will you go there by bus or on foot?
Nothing but除了,只有 I did nothing but watch it.
Or表示否则 Hurry up or you will be late.
for 表示后面的句子是原因 He is good at math for he studies harder than others.
still 表示后句概念由前句转折而来 The weather is very cold, still we needn’t wear more clothes.
Not only…but also 不仅…而且。可并列主、谓、宾、表及句子。主语并列时,谓语要就近一致 Not only he but also I am a teacher.
As well as 以及,同样。并列单词、短语、句子。并列主语时,动词要随前面的主语变化 He works as well as he can
Either…or 既…又…,或…或…,并列主、谓、宾、表及状语 Either come in or go out.
Neither…nor 既不…也不, 并列主、谓、宾、表、状语,并列主语时,谓语就近一致 Neither you nor he speaks French.
Both…and 和,既…也,并列主、谓、宾及表语 I can play both football and basketball.
nor 也不,引导句子要倒装 He can not speak English, nor can I.
so 因此,所以,不合because连用 You like apples, so do I.
从属连词:
连词 作用 举例
after 表示“时间”,在…之后 After I finished the school, I became a worker in the factory.
Although/though 表示让步, “尽管” Although she is young, she knows a lot.
as 表示时间,“当…时”,方式“象…”,原因,“由于、因为”让步,“尽管、虽然” As it was late, we must go now.
As if/as though 表方式,“似乎、好像” He told is such a story as though he had been there before.
As long as/so long as 表条件,“只要” As long as I am free, I’ll go to help you.
As soon as 表时间,“一…就…” I will phone you as soon as I come back.
because 表原因,“因为” I have to stay in bed because I am ill.
before 表时间,“在…之前“ You should think more before you do it.
Even if/ even though 表让步,“即使” You should try again even if you failed.
Hardly…when 表时间,“(刚)一…就” Hardly I entered the gate when the bell rang.
if “假如”,引导条件状语从句 What should I do net if the rain doesn’t stop?
“是否”,引导宾语从句 I don’t know if he comes back or not.
In case 表目的,“以防,以免” You should be more careful in case there is a fire.
In order that 表目的,“为了,以便” We study hard in order that we can pass the exam.
No matter +疑问词 表让步,“无论,不管” No matter what you do, you should try your best.
No sooner…than 表时间,“刚一…就…” No sooner had I come home than it began to rain.
Now that 表原因,“既然,因为,由于” Now that the crops are in, we can start to make preparations for winter sowing.
once 表时间,“一旦…” Once you know the rules, you’ll have choice to obey them.
since 表时间,“自从…以来” He has been in this company since he left school.
表原因,“既然,由于” Since the job is dangerous, let’s do it more carefully.
so far as/as far as 表条件,“就…而言,就…而论” As far as I know, it is easy for you to speak in English.
So that 表目的“以便” Speak loud so that everybody can hear clearly.
So…that 表结果“如此,以致” He got up so late that he missed the bus.
than 表示比较,“比” Things were worse than we thought.
that 无词义,引导名词性从句 It is dangerous that we walk on the thin ice.
引导定语从句和状语从句 She hurried that she might not be late for work.
unless 表条件,“除非,如果不” I will go to the zoo unless it rains.
Until/till 表时间,“直到…为止” I’ll wait till he comes back.
when 表时间,“当…时“ When they got there, the train has left.
whether “是否”引导名词性从句 Whether he can some to see us is unknown.
表让步,“不管/无论、是否” Whether she is ill or well, she is always happy.
while 表时间,“当…时” While he was in Beijing, he visited the Great Wall.
表让步,“尽管,既然” While I find the problems very difficult, I don’t think them insoluble.
whenever 表时间,“无论什么时候” Whenever you meet any trouble, tell me at once.
说到连词,好多考生对此一知半解,因为连词的种类非常多,有并列连词(连接并列句),有从属连词(引导复合句),而从属连词引导的从句又可分为三类:名词性从句、定语从句和状语从句。尤其应注意的是有些连词可引导不止一种从句,具有多重功能,这往往是学习的难点,也是易混点。
难点回顾:
1.as可引导多种从句,如时间状语从句、原因状语从句、让步状语从句、方式状语从句、比较状语从句以及定语从句。
[误] Which you can see, he is always ready to help others.
[正] As you can see, he is always ready to help others.
[析]as引导非限制性定语从句,当"正像"讲。
[误] Do like I told you.
[正] Do as I told you.
[析]like是介词; as是连词,在这里作"按照"讲,引导方式状语从句。
[误] He was reading then he was walking.
[正] He was reading as he was walking.
[析]as强调两个动作同时进行,作"一边……一边……"讲。
[误] As he is young, he knows a lot.
[正] Young as he is, he knows a lot.
[析]as引导的让步状语从句应用倒装语序,应把表语提前。
2.that可引导多种从句,如定语从句、名词性从句、状语从句等。
[误] You don’t like him is none of my business.
[正] That you don’t like him is none of my business.
[析]that引导主语从句,本身无实际意义,但不能省略。
[误] The thief handed everything which he had stolen to the police.
[正] The thief handed everything that he had stolen to the police.
[析]everything是不定代词,因此后面的定语从句只能由that引导。
[误] I am happy as you passed the exam.
[正] I am happy that you passed the exam.
[析]that在形容词后面引导原因状语从句,不能用as。
3.where可引导多种从句,如定语从句、状语从句以及名词性从句。
[误] Go to find your watch. It’s there where you left it.
[正] Go to find your watch. It’s where you left it.
[析]where引导表语从句,相当于at the place where。
[误] The place where there is water, there is life.
[正] Where there is water, there is life.
[析]where引导地点状语从句,可以放在主句的前面,也可以放在主句的后面。
[误] I can’t remember in which place I met him.
[正] I can’t remember where I met him.
[析]where引导宾语从句,不能用in which。
4.what可引导感叹句、特殊疑问句、名词性从句等。
[误] How an interesting story he told us!
[正] What an interesting story he told us!
[析]What an interesting story!=How interesting a story!
[误] I can’t remember the thing what he told me.
[正] I can’t remember what he told me.
[析]what引导宾语从句,相当于the thing that。
5.no matter+what/who...与whatever/whoever...的区别:前者只能引导让步状语从句,而后者既可引导让步状语从句,也可引导名词性从句。
[误] I will make friends with no matter who shares my interest.
[正] I will make friends with whoever shares my interest.
[析]引导名词性从句时只能用whoever。
[误] You must hand in no matter what you’ve found.
[正] You must hand in whatever you’ve found.
[析] 引导名词性从句时只能用whatever。
6.whether和if的区别:两者引导名词性从句时都是从属连词,作"是否"讲,本身不作成分,此时句子中往往出现表示"不肯定"意义的一些短语,如not sure/certain, not known/decided,...is still question, depend on等。
whether 和if 引导动词后的宾语从句时可互换,但下列情况一般只能用whether:
(1) 引导介词后的宾语从句;(2)引导主语从句; (3) 引导表语从句;(4)引导同位语从句;(5)后面出现or not。
[误] If you can pass the exam depends on how hard you work.
[正] Whether you can pass the exam depends on how hard you work.
[析]引导主语从句只能用whether。
7.while, when, as 引导时间状语从句时的区别:
while只能表示"在一段时间或过程中",即只能表示时间的"一段",后面一般用进行时或表示状态的结构;when可以表示一段时间,也可表示时间的"一点";as引导时间状语从句时,表示两个动作同时进行,作"一边……一边……"讲。
[误] I picked up some French words as I was having a holiday in Paris.
[正] I picked up some French words while I was having a holiday in Paris.
[析]while强调在……过程中;as说明两个动作同时进行。
[误] We were having classes while someone knocked at the door.
[正] We were having classes when someone knocked at the door.
[析]when可表示时间的"一点",而while不能。
8.because, as, since(now that)引导原因状语从句时的区别:
because引导原因状语从句时,表示直接的原因,可以回答why的提问;as只能是一种"附加的"理由,不能回答why的提问;since(now that)多表示双方都已很清楚的事实,作"既然"讲。
[误] Because we’ve finished most of the work, let’s have a rest.
[正] Since(Now that) we’ve finished most of the work, let’s have a rest.
[析]表示大家都清楚的理由用since(now that)。
9.however和as 引导让步状语从句时的区别:
however引导让步状语从句时,相当于no matter how,后面跟形容词或副词;as引导让步状语从句时,用倒装语序,即把作状语的副词或作表语的形容词或名词提前,而且如果作表语的是单数名词,前面不加冠词,也可以把谓语动词部分的实义动词提前。
[误] As hard he works, he can’t catch up with his classmates.
[正] However hard he works, he can’t catch up with his classmates.
[析]见上述说明。
[误] A model worker he is, he remains modest.
[正] Model worker as he is, he remains modest.
[析]as 引导让步状语从句,前面的单数名词前不加冠词。
典例调研
[例1] You must put things there you can find them.
there→where。此处应由where引导地点状语从句。
[例2] I remember the time as my grandmother was telling stories to me.
as→when。when引导名词性从句,表示"……的时候"。
[例3] A child as he was, he looked quite calm in that difficult situation.
去掉A,child的首字母大写。as引导让步状语从句时,前面作表语的单数名词前不加冠词。
[例4] Don’t make friends with such people that you think are dishonest.
that→as。such...as...搭配在一起用,as引导定语从句。
[例5] He had been admitted by Beijing University made us very happy.
句首加That, 把He改为he。that引导名词性从句,本身无实际意义,也不作成分,但不能省略。
【指导?借鉴】
对这些有着多重作用的引导词,大家应通过类比找出它们的异同点,深刻体会它们在不同从句中的作用,然后灵活运用。
强化闯关
1. Anyone leaves the room last should remember to lock the door.
2. He is willing to help no matter who is in trouble.
3. Who breaks the law should be punished.
4. The place he has gone is not known yet.
5. I will buy the dictionary as it is expensive.
6. He said that he would do all what he could to help us.
7. The thing what he had done surprised everybody.
8. As everybody is here, let’s begin our discussion.
9. We will finish the work on time, however difficulties we meet.
答案及解析:
1. Anyone→Whoever或Anyone who。 whoever可以直接用来引导名词性从句,相当于anyone who。
2. no matter who→whoever。 引导宾语从句应用whoever。
3. Who→Whoever。who和whoever都可引导名词性从句,但whoever泛指任何人,具有强调语气,who往往指一定的对象。
4. The place→Where。where可以直接用来引导主语从句。
5. as→although。此处让步状语从句是正常语序,因此应用although。
6. what→that或去掉what。 what不能引导定语从句。
7. 去掉The thing, 把what的首字母大写。what可以直接引导主语从句。
8. As→Since。since引导原因状语从句,表示大家都清楚的原因。
9. however→whatever。however引导让步状语从句时相当于no matter how, 后面跟形容词或副词;whatever引导让步状语从句时,相当于no matter what,后面跟名词。
No matter whether he had been invited or not, he was there to celebrate Wu You's birthday. 无论他是否被邀请参加,他去了就是为了庆贺吴莜的生日。
对于whether... or not前是否能用no matter,部分学生感到疑惑。他们说,见过no matter who, no matter what, no matter how, no matter where, no matter when等,没见过no matter whether... or not。可见,对于no matter的用法他们只知其一,不知其二。
针对这一情况,笔者特将no matter的用法归纳、整理如下。
1. 词组no matter可独立成句,也可在句中担当成分。如:
1) No matter! 不要紧!
2) No matter, I'll go myself. 不碍事,我自个儿去。
3) No matter if they do not take this factor into consideration. 如果他们不考虑这个因素,那无关紧要。
4) It is (of ) no matter. (no matter在句中作表语或of的宾语。) 这无关紧要。
5) I had something to say, but it's no matter. 我本来有句话要说,但不是很重要。
2. 词组no matter在it作形式主语、真正主语位于句末的句子中作表语。如:
1) It is no matter that he didn't phone. 他没打电话没关系。
2) It made no matter to him that his brother lost all his money. 他哥哥把所有的钱都弄丢了,这对他来说是无关紧要的。
3) It's no matter whether you get there early or late. 不论你到那里早或晚都无关紧要。
3. no matter与疑问词who, what, where, when, how, if, whether等连用,意为“无论,不管”。如:
1) Don't open the door, no matter who comes. 不管谁来都别开门。
2) Don't trust him, no matter what he says. 无论他说什么,都别相信他。
3) No matter where you work, you can always find time to study. 无论你在哪里工作,你都能找到时间学习。
4) No matter when and how the invaders come, they will be wiped out clean. 无论侵略者什么时候来,怎样来,他们必将被消灭得一干二净。
5)—Are you going home? 你回家吗?
—Not yet. No matter how hard I work, there is always more to do. 还不行。不管我干得多么卖力,总是有做不完的工作。
6) Mary wanted to get to school on time, no matter if she went without breakfast. 玛丽就是不吃早餐也要准时赶到学校。
7) No matter whether it is light or dark at that hour, we've decided to leave at five o'clock in the morning. 不管到时候是否天亮,我们都已决定早晨5点离开。
no matter who (what, when, where, how, whether等)引导的从句通常在句中作状语,表示让步,但有时也可在句中作宾语。如:
8) The man who is lazy radiates laziness in no matter what situation he be observed. [no matter what situation he be observed 在句中作in的宾语。另外,该从句中的谓语用了虚拟语气现在时(即动词原形)]不管什么情况下观察他,那个懒汉都显得很懒。
4. 有时, no matter what, no matter who, no matter when等可用于句末或句中。如:
1) We have to get to the airport on time, no matter what. 我们无论如何也要准时赶到机场。
2) They're going to win no matter what. 他们无论如何都要赢。
3) Anyone, no matter who, may point out our shortcomings. 不管是什么人,都可以指出我们的缺点。
5. 有时,在no matter what引出的从句中要省略谓语动词。如:
1) No matter what the excuse, you must not be late. 不管有什么借口,你一定不要迟到。英语中的连词主要分为两类:并列连词和从属连词。并列连词用来连接平行的词、词组或从句。
常见的表示语义引申的并列连词有:
1. and
Justice is on your side. And justice will triumph over injustice. 正义在你们一边,而正义是会战胜非正义的。
2. neither... nor
She could neither speak the language nor write it. 这种语言她既不会说,也不会写。
3. both... and
A man should have both courage and perseverance.一个人既要有勇气又要有毅力。
4. not only... but also
We should not only be bold, but also be cautious. 我们不仅要大胆,而且要谨慎。
5. as well as
I have read one of his novels as well as a few of his plays. 我读过他的一本小说和几个剧本。
表示选择的并列连词有:
1. or
You may do it yourself, or ask someone else to do it. 你可以自己做或者让别人做。
2. either... or
I left it either on the table or in the drawer. 我不是把它放在桌子上了,就是放在抽屉里了。
除了表示选择外,or和either... or还可以表示否定的条件:
1) Now I must go or (if not) I shall be late for the party. 我现在得走了,否则晚会我就要迟到了。
2) You'll either behave yourself, or you'll never go out with me. 你要么老实点,要么就永远不能跟我一起出去。
表示转折或对比的并列连词有:
1. but
He tried hard but he was unsuccessful. 他做了很大努力但没有成功。
2. yet
The car was old, yet it was in excellent condition. 这辆车子很旧,但仍处于良好的状态。
3. however
She felt ill. She went to work, however, and tried to concentrate. 她病了。然而她照旧去上班,并且尽力集中精神工作。
4. nevertheless
I don't know anything against that man; nevertheless I don't trust him. 我对那个人没有什么不良的看法,但我不能信赖他。
表示因果关系的并列连词有:
1. for
You'd better put on your sweater, for it's rather cold outside. 你最好把毛衣穿上,外边相当冷。
2. so
My sister is expecting me,so I must be off now. 姐姐在等我,因此我得走了。
3. therefore
You are right, therefore we should support you. 你是对的,所以我们应当支持你。
4. hence
I fell off my bike yesterday—hence the bruises. 我昨天骑自行车摔倒了——所以青一块、紫一块的。
从属连词是用来引导从句的。
引导时间状语从句的从属连词有:
1. when
There was prolonged applause when he began to speak. 他开始讲话时响起了经久不息的掌声。
2. while
We should strike while the iron is hot. 我们要趁热打铁。
3. as
As (When) he entered, the hall burst into thunderous applause. 当他进来时,全场发出雷鸣般的掌声。
4. after
After I visit Shanghai I'll travel up the Yangtze. 访问上海之后,我将溯长江而上。
5. before
It would be months before he was fit for the work. 要过好几个月他才能适应工作。
6. since
It is just a week since we arrived here. 我们到这里才一个星期。
7. until (till)
I shall stay here until (till) I've completed my studies. 我要在这里待到学习结束为止。
8. as soon as
As soon as he got well, he went back to work. 他病一好就回去上班了。
9. once
Once he said that, I knew he was lying. 他一说这话我就知道他在撒谎。
引导原因状语从句的从属连词有:
1. because
He failed because he was too careless. 因为他太粗心,所以失败了。
2. as
As it was already rather dark, we decided to stop at the temple for the night. 因为已经相当晚了,我们决定在庙里待一夜。
3. since
Since you don't want to go, we won't force you to. 既然你不愿意去,我们也不勉强你。
4. now that
Now that you are all back, we'd better start the work right away. 你们既然都回来了,我们最好马上就开始工作。
5. considering (that)
They did the job quite well considering (that) they had no experience. 考虑到他们没有什么经验,这项工作他们已经干得不错了。
6. seeing that
Seeing that (Since) nobody was very enthusiastic about it, they decided to cancel the trip. 由于都没有很高的热情,他们决定取消这次旅行。
引导条件状语从句的从属连词有:
1. if
If you can do it, so can I. 你要是能办到,我也能办到。
2. even if
We wouldn't lose heart even if we should fail ten times. 我们就是失败十次也不灰心。
3. unless
I won't go unless you want me to. 除非你要我去,否则我是不会去的。
4. in case
We'd better take our raincoats in case it should rain (rains). 我们最好把雨衣带着以防下雨。
5. provided /providing (that)
I'll come provided (providing) (that) you let me know in good time. 你要是及时通知我是会来的。
6. suppose/supposing (that)
Suppose (Supposing) (that) he won't agree, what shall we do? 假如他不同意,我们怎么办?
7. as (so) long as
You may use the room as long as you keep it clean. 只要保持清洁你可以用这个房间。
8. on condition (that)
I'll lend you the book on condition (that) you return it on Monday. 只要你能在星期一还我,这本书我就借给你。
引导让步状语从句的从属连词有:
1. although / though
Everybody worked with great enthusiasm although/though the weather was extremely cold. 虽然天气很冷,大家工作得非常起劲。
2. even if (though)
Even if I have to walk all the way I'll get there. 即使我得一路走着去,我也要去那里。
引导比较状语从句的从属连词有:
1. than
We have produced 20% more cotton this year than we did last year. 我们今年棉花产量比去年高百分之二十。
2. as (so)...as
He doesn't play half as well as his sister. 他演奏的水平不及他姐姐的一半。
引导目的状语从句的从属连词有:
1. lest
She explained again and again lest people should misunderstand her. 她一再解释唯恐人们误解。
2. so that
Speak clearly so that we may understand you. 讲话要清楚,以便我们能听明白。
3. in order that
He assigned us some books to read at home in order that (so that) we might have a deeper understanding of the subject. 他指定几本书给我们回家看,以便我们对这一主题有一个较深的了解。
引导结果状语从句的从属连词有:
1. so...that
She was so moved that tears came to her eyes. 她感动得热泪盈眶。
2. such...that
It was such a boring speech that I fell asleep. 演讲枯燥乏味,听得我都睡着了。
引导名词性从句的连词有三个:(1)that (本身无意义),(2)whether (or not),(3)if。例如:
That they will refuse the offer is unlikely. 他们不太可能会拒绝这个建议。
I don't know whether (=if) these figures are accurate. 我不知道这些数字是否精确。
需要注意的是:whether (or not) 可引导大部分名词性从句;if仅可引导宾语从句,而且不可跟or not。例如:
Whether (≠if) they will come or not won't make much difference. 他们来不来关系不大。
I wonder if (=whether) she has received our telegram. 我不知道她是否收到了我们的电报。
连词while除具有“当时”、“同时”等意义外,根据上下文还有以下不同含义及其不同译法。
一、引导时间状语从句
译作“当……时”。例如:
1. Make hay while the sun shines.
趁着有太阳晒晒草。(乘机行事,抓紧时机。)
2. We must work hard to gain more knowledge while we are young.
趁着现在还年轻,我们必须刻苦学习,获得更多的知识。
二、引导让步状语从句
常放在句首,译作“尽管”、“虽然”,比although或 though语气要轻。例如:
1. While I believe it is true, I cannot prove it.
虽然我相信那是真的,但我无法证明。
2. While any kind of athletic shoe can provide a certain amount of rebound,
energy-return sneakers are designed to maximize this effect.
虽然任何一种运动鞋都能提供一定的反弹力,但回力运动鞋能够使这种效果最大化。
三、引导条件状语从句
相当于as long as,译作“只要”。例如:
1. While there is life, there is hope.
有生命,就有希望。
2. While a spark of life remains, it is a doctor's duty to save the patient.
只要病人还有一息生机,医生就有责任挽救。
四、引导原因状语从句
相当于since, 有“既然”的意思。例如:
1. You'll never save any money while you're so extravagant.
你这么奢侈,永远存不下钱来。
2. I'd like to get it settled today while we're at it.
既然我们着手干了,我想今天就把它干完。
五、连接并列句
表示对比,相当于whereas,译作“而”、“可是”。例如:
1. An outdoors man will soon become pale if he changes to an indoor job, while a desk clerk will take on a tan after a short vacation in the sun.
从事室外工作的人如果调到室内工作,不久肤色就会变白;而一个伏案工作的文员出去度个短假,就会被太阳变黑。
2. Motion is absolute while stagnation is relative.
运动是绝对的,而静止是相对的。
六、连接并列句
表示递进,相当于and what is more, 译作“并且”、“而且”。例如:
1. The new man-made fibres are more hardwearing than natural fibres and greatly reduce mending, while good ready-made clothes are cheap and plentiful.
新的人造纤维比天然纤维耐磨,因此能大大减少修补工作,而且做好的衣服价廉物美,数量也多。
2. Of course, I resolutely determined not to marry, while I quite forgot to consider at all that great rock of disaster in the working-class world-- sickness.
当然, 我下定决心不结婚,而且把工人阶级的巨大灾难——疾病,也忘得一干二净。
英文中数字的写法和汉语有所不同,想必大家都已经了解。但日常生活中难免还会连词是指把词、词组、分句和句子甚至段落连接起来的起连接作用的词或词组。连词的种类很多,主要有以下几类:
一、并列连词
1、表示对等关系的并列连词。使用该类并列连词时必须保持结构对等,词性统一,在句子中要使用对等成分,不可失之偏颇。常用的该类连词有:and,either...or,neither...nor,as well as,both...and,not only...but also。如:
This is an old clock that is not only very handsome but also accurate.
2、表示选择关系的并列连词。常用的该类连词有:or,or else,otherwise,rather than,either...or。如:
You should get the license right away,or you'll have to pay a fine.
3、表示转折和对比关系的并列连词。常用的该类连词有:but,while,whereas,yet,however,nevertheless,on the other hand,on the contrary。如:
She is a funny girl,yet you can't help liking her.
4、表示因果关系的并列连词。常用的该类连词有:so,for,therefore,hence,thus,consequently,accordingly。如:
It was raining heavily,so the sports meeting was postponed.
二、从属连词
1、引导时间状语的从属连词。该类连词除一些常用的外,还包括:as soon as,the moment(一……就……),the minute,the instant,once, immediately(一……就……),no sooner...than
(一……就……),hardly...when(刚……就……)。
如:
He told me the news immediately he got it.
2、引导地点状语的从属连词。该类连词有两个:where和wherever。如:
Where there is a life,there is a hope.
3、引导条件状语的从属连词。该类连词除
if,unless和if only(要是……就好了),还有:
provided(that),providing(that),supposing(that),
suppose,in case(that),as long as(只要),on condition that。如:
If only I had more money,I could buy some new clothes.
4、引导目的状语的从属连词。该类连词主要有:so that,that,in order that,lest,for fear that, in case(that)。例如:
She worried for fear that the child would be hurt.
5、引导原因状语的从属连词。该类连词主要有:as,because,since,in that, now that(既然),seeing that(鉴于)。例如:
Seeing that it is eight o'clock,we'll wait no longer.
6、引导比较状语的从属连词。该类连词主要有:as,as...as,less(more)... than,the more...the more。例如:
The more we can do for you,the happier we will be.
7、引导方式状语的从属连词。该类连词主要有:as,as if(好像),as though(好像)。例如:
Heat can flow from a hot body to a cooler body as if it were a fluid.
8、引导结果状语的从属连词。该类连词主要有:so...that,such...that,so(that)。例如:
He is such an honest man that everyone would like to trust him.
9、引导让步状语的从属连词。该类连词主要有:though,although,even if,even though, while,as,whatever,however,whoever,no matter...(不管)。例如:
Hard as he tried,he failed to pass the exam.
三、连接代词和连接副词
这类词用来引导名词性从句。连接代词有:that(不充当成分),which,what,who,whose等;连接副词有:when,where,how,why等。
四、关系代词和关系副词
这类词用来引导定语从句。关系代词包括:who,that,which,as,whose,whom等。关系副词包括:when,where,why,how等。关系代词和关系副词起着三重作用:其一,它们连接着主句和从句;其二,它们代表着主句的一个先行词(which和as还可以代表主句中的一个词组或整个句子);其三,它们又在从句中充当成分。
I was so tired that I fell asleep at the moment my head touched the pillow.
正确的改法是去掉句中的介词 at ,由 the moment 引导时间状语从句。很多考生做这道题时不知道去掉 at ,认为在句中用 at the moment 是正确的。为了帮助同学们更好地掌握这种由其它词类转化而成的“特殊”连词,下面对它们作一简要归纳:
一 . 由动词转化成的连词
1. suppose (如果,假使)引导条件状语从句。例如:
( 1 ) Suppose it rains, what shall we do?
如果天下雨,我们该怎么办?
( 2 ) Suppose a lion should come out of the forest?
要是有一头狮子从树林中跑出来咋办?
2. save (除了,只是)引导状语从句,表示伴随状况。例如:
A similar timetable has been used, save that the morning break is shorter.
已经采用了差不多相同的时间表,只是早上的休息时间缩短了。
二 . 由分词转化成的连词
这类连词有两种:一种是由现在分词转化成的连词,另一种是由过去分词转化成的连词。
1. 现在分词
由现在分词转化成的连词有 seeing (考虑到……), supposing (假定) , providing (如果……的话), considering (考虑到)等,可用来引导条件状语从句。例如:
( 1 ) He can stay here providing he works.
如果他工作的话,他可以留在这儿。
( 2 ) Supposing that you've made some progress, you should not be proud.
假定你有了一些进步,你也不应该骄傲自大。
( 3 ) Considering they are newcomers, they've done very well.
考虑到他们是新来的,他们已经做得很好了。
2. 过去分词
由过去分词转化成的连词有 provided (如果……的话;以……为条件), granted (假定;即使)等,可用来引导条件状语从句。例如:
( 1 ) You may go, provided your work is done.
如果你的工作做完了,你就可以走了。
( 2 ) Granted that he has enough money to buy the house, it doesn't mean he's going to do so.
即使他有足够的钱来买这栋房子,他也不一定会这么做。
三 . 由副词转化成的连词
directly 和 immediately 均表示“一……就,马上,立刻”的意思,可用来引导时间状语从句。例如:
( 1 ) Directly I had done it, I knew I had made a mistake.
我刚做完这件事,就知道出错了。
( 2 ) I came immediately I'd eaten.
我一吃完就来了。
四 . 由名词转化成的连词
由名词转化过来的连词,前面一般都有定冠词。
1. the moment, the instant, the minute 这几个词组都表示“一……就,马上,立刻”的意思,可用来引导时间状语从句。例如:
( 1 ) I will meet you the instant you arrive.
你一到我就去见你。
( 2 ) The moment you leave, please tell me.
你一动身就请告诉我。
2. the first (或 second, next, last ) time (或 moment )表示“在某一次……的时候”,可用来引导时间状语从句。例如:
I liked her the first time I met her.
第一次见到她时我就喜欢上了她。
五 . 由介词短语转化成的关联连词
由介词短语转化成的关联连词很多,而且还在不断增加。常见的有 for fear that (唯恐), in case that (假使), in order that (为了), on condition that (如果), with the result that (结果)等,可用来引导条件、目的或结果状语从句。例如:
( 1 ) He hurried home for fear that he might miss his guests.
他急忙赶回家,唯恐见不到他的客人。
( 2 ) In case I'm late, start without me.
如果我来晚了,你们不必等我。
( 3 ) I was in the bath with the result that I didn't hear the telephone.
我正在浴室里洗澡,结果没有听见电话铃响。
( 4 ) They flew there in order that they might be in time to attend the opening ceremony. 为了能及时参加开幕典礼,他们乘飞机到了那里。
以上所举的连词,形、义、音均与相应的动词、分词、副词、名词和介词短语相同,因而会引起人们的误解。如果我们能摆脱通常的认识禁锢,去重新确定它们的词性,那么,许多问题就可以迎刃而解了。
“和”是汉语中一个多词性的词,与英语单词“and”相对应的是连词,而且它是以英语为母语的汉语学习者经常用错的一个连词。本文将“和”与它的英文对译词“and”进行对比,找出他们的相同点和不同点,重点描写二者在句法、意义、用法方面的差异,以期找到干扰学生正确理解和使用连词“和”的原因,从而有针对性地指导以英语为母语的汉语学习者学习和汉语的“和”这个连词。
一 句法功能对比
(一)从连接成分上看,二者有相同点也有不同点。其中不同点是干扰外国学生学习
连词“和”的主要原因。
首先来看其相同点:二者皆可以连接词和词组表示并列关系。它既可以连接名词、代词、动词、形容词,又可以连接名词性词组、动词性词组、形容词性词组。如:
1 连接名词(名词性词组)
(1)印刷术、指南针和火药,是中国古代劳动人民的伟大发明。
(2)Father and son went to New York by a morning train.
2 连接代词
(3)明天在大会上发言的有你和我。
(4)Both you and me are good students.
3 连接动词(动词性词组)
(5)我们要恢复和发扬我们党的优良传统。
(6)You will wait and have a bite with us.
4 连接形容词(形容词性词组)
(7)为了使每个党员在抗战中能够尽其更好和更大的努力,也着重地研究持久战的必要。
(8)The government is in a social and educational dilemma.
其次来看其不同点:连词“和”不可以连接句子,只可以连接词语,是词语连词,[1](P122)而“and”不仅可以连接词和词组,也可以连接句子,兼属词语连词和句间连词。
“and”连接句子分为两种情况:[2](P145)
1 “and”可以连接两个并列的句子,例如:
(9)Irene did not answer ,and James, too, ceased speaking.
2 “and”可以连接两个句子,后面一句表结果,意思为“只要…就”,如:
(10)Go straight and you will see a church..
“and”也可以连接两个句子和另一个成分,翻译为“而且、要[是] …还”, 例如:
(11)You must stop, and at once, this sort of behavior.
所以外国留学生受其母语的影响,造句时容易犯错误,例如:我头痛和牙痛。那位女老师爱说话和发音标准。对这种错误我们可以将其归类系统解决。还有值得一提的一点是连词“和”与“and”都可以连接数词,但是具体用法截然不同,具体例子如下:
(12)在汉语中六和八都是吉祥数字。
(13)Two and two make four.
(14) One million ,three hundred and forty-five thousand, two hundred and thirty-three.
例(12)中“和”为单纯的连词用法,同用来连接名词、代词、形容词没什么区别,但在(13)、(14)中“and”的用法却有着英语的特色,例(13)表示相加之意,而例(14)只表示十位和百位的连接,是一种习惯用法,汉语中无此用法。
(二) 从所连接构成并列关系的句法功能上看,二者也有相同点和不同点。
其相同点为:由“和”与“and”连接的成分,都可以作主语、宾语、定语。分别来看下面的例句分析:
1 作主语:在例(1)中“印刷术、指南针和火药”是句子的主语,在例(2)中由“and”连接的成分“father and son”作了句子的主语。
2 作宾语:在例(2)中“你和我” 是整个句子的宾语。
(15)I will give you a nice cup of tea and ginger biscuit.
其中“a nice cup of tea and ginger biscuit”作了句子的宾语。
3作定语:在例(7)中“更好和更大”作了“努力”的定语,例(8)中“social
and educational“作了“dilemma”的定语。
其不同点为:由“和”连接的动词和形容词构成的联合结构不能直接充当位谓语。外国学生经常把母语的规则套用在汉语上,造成了他们认为并列形容词也可以作谓语的错误,例如:我们的校园很干净和很漂亮。我们的房间很高和很大。但是如果这种联合结构前面加上修饰成分或者后面跟有连带成分,它仍可以充任谓语。[3](P237)例如:
(16)他们的品质是那样地纯洁和高尚,他们的意志是那样地坚韧和刚强,他们的怀是那样地美丽和宽广。
(17)会议讨论和决定了下季度的生产任务和具体指标。
例(16)的联合结构前面有修饰成分“那样地”,例(17)的联合结构后面带有宾语“下季度的生产任务和具体指标”。
而在英语中由“and”连接的两个动词或形容词则可以直接充当谓语。例如:
(18)They jump and run.
(三) 从句中位置来看:
连词“和”与“and”都是并列连词,而并列连词的句位有两层含义:一是连词与所连接的成分的位置关系,[4](P67)从这一点来看二者都是前置连词。英语的并列连词全是前置连词,汉语的并列连词,除了“不说”之外,也全是前置连词。汉、英并列连词在前置性上如此的一致是与英、汉两种语言的SVO基本语序分不开的,一般来说,SVO语序的语言以使用前置介词为主。二是指并列连词与小句的关系。[4](p67)有些并列连词只能出现在先行的小句中,有些并列连词只能出现在后续的小句中,前者为先行连词,后者为后续连词。通过“and”连接句子的两种情况的分析,我们可以看出“and”为后续连词。而“和”不能连接句子,所以只能根据语法结构的划分规则和语音停顿的形式,将其归为后续连词。
二 意义的对比
(一)从义项数量上来看,连词“and”的义项数量远远多于连词“和”。在《柯林斯英语词典》中“and”有12个义项,《牛津高阶英汉双解词典》中“and”有6个义项,分别为:
1 also, in addition to 和、与、及、同、又、并、亦、且、兼、而 2 add to ,plus 加 3 then, following this 然后、其后 4 as a result of this 因此、那么、就 5 then, again, repeatedly, increasingly 一再地、重复地、继续增加地6 contrasting with (different kinds of the same thing) 与同一事物的不同种类对比。[5](P46)
在《新华字典》中连词“和”有1个义项,《现代汉语大词典》中连词“和”有2个义项,分别为:1 表示并列关系,犹“与”。2 表示选择关系,犹“或”。[6](P1176)
(二)从义项的对应关系上来看是不平衡的。我们这里用《牛津高阶英汉双解词典》与《现代汉语大词典》进行一下对比。“和”的第一个义项与“and”的第一个义项大体相同,“and”的其他义项则是“和”没有的。所以在英译汉的时候,“and”的这几个义项往往通过上下文来体现。这里不多作解释,下文第三部分将进一步论述。
(三)“和”主要表示并列关系,但也有少数表示选择关系,而在英语中这是与“and”相对的另一个词“or”的用法。选择关系指的是列举两项或几项让人选择其中一项,或者把两件事情加以比较,选择其中一种,表示“或此或彼”、“非此即彼、取此舍彼”的意义。例如:
(19)干和不干,你自己拿主意。
按照关系意义来划分,“and”属于表示语义引申的并列连词,它在语义上表示其所连接的成分是对前项的补充和引申。但是这是“and”的主要用法,它还有下面几种意义。
1 表示意义增补,例如:
(20)He is Jack of all trades and master of none.
2 表示先后顺序,例如:
(21)He opened the door and went in.
3 表示因果关系,例如:
(22)He heard a cry for help, and (therefore) he rushed out of the house.
4 表示条件,例如:
(23)Think it over again and you will find a way out.
5 表示对比, 例如:
(24) Mary likes music and James is found of sports.
6 表示评注,例如:
(25)He has a somewhat swelled head, and I don’t like this.
7 还有一些由“and”连接的并列结构形似并列,而实际上并非并列结构,例如:
(26)This room is nice and warm.(=nicely warm)
(27) I will go and bring back your boots.(=go in order to bring back)
(28) You must try and come to the party.(=try to come to)
(29) Can you touch pitch and not be defiled?(=without being defiled)
三 用法对比
(一)从二者使用的强制性来看,英汉并列连词“和”与“and”在应用中有相当大的差距。潘文国指出:“英语虚词的使用是刚性的”,“由于英语虚词从本质上来说,起了代替形态的作用,因此,它的使用往往是强制性的,非用不可的”[7](P88)。连词作为虚词的一种,是句法组织的必要成分,其使用是强制性的。前面的英语例句都可以体现这一点。
与英语虚词使用的刚性相适应,汉语虚词的使用有相当大的弹性。高名凯在《汉语语法论》中指出:“汉人平常说话不喜欢用太多没有基本意义的虚词,只是把事情或意思排列起来,让人们去了解这两件事或两个意思之间所发生的关系如何”,[7](P88)也就是说,省去虚词,利用词语、句子表现出来的事情先后顺序和因果逻辑关系。连词省略是虚词省略的一种重要形式。例如:
(30)我们完全有能决心,(和)有能力最终解决台湾问题。
上面括号中的连词是汉语省去的,而在英语中相应的连词是不能省去的。
以上的分析表明,英语连词“and”的使用是强制性的,汉语连词“和”的使用有相当大的弹性,英汉连词“and”与“和”在使用中表示为英语多用连词,汉语少用连词的差异。
(二)从翻译的角度来考察:
1 义项对译使用比例差别较大。英语的连词“and”翻译为“和”以及与“和”表意相近的“与、及、而、兼、并、同”等时的比例约占80%(其中有些并未译出),其次经常翻译为第三个义项“然后、其后”,这大约占到5%左右,剩余几项很少在对译时被采用。了解它们互译时的频率,将有助于外国朋友更好地学习汉语的连词“和”。
2 “英译汉”与“汉译英”连词运用有较大的差别。汉语重形合,英语重意合。汉民族是综合型思维,是主观的、内向的,英民族则是分析型思维,是客观的、外向的,[8](P99)因而也就形成了汉语注重内在联系,隐含关系和模糊关系,而英语则比较注重形式上的连接。所以英语多用连词,汉语少用连词。英译汉时,汉语常常使用其他语言手段表示英语连词表达的意义,在很多情况下,并不译出英语的连词,汉译英时,英语译文则经常添加连词,下面,我们来看一些,英汉互译时资料,分析英汉连词“and”与“和”在实际使用中的差异。
首先来看英译汉的几个例子:
(31)He turned away, and bent over a chair.
他转身过去,俯在一把椅子背上。
(32)And, as he did not answer, she said again.
他没回答,她又说。
(33)I said that I congratulated myself on having the honor to make hers, and that the happiness was natured.
我说,我自庆有幸,能跟她认识,这个高兴是双方共有的。
其次来看汉译英的例子,例如:
(34)秋天的后半夜,月亮下去了,太阳还没有出,只剩下一片乌蓝的天。
It was autumn, in the small hours of the morning. The moon had gone down, but the sun had not get risen, and the sky appeared a sheet of dirking blue.
(35) 老栓还踌躇着,黑的人便抢过灯笼,一把扯下灯罩,裹了馒头,……
When old Shuan still hesitated, the man in black snatched his lantern and tore off its paper shade to wrap up the roll.
(36) 其实那年我已二十岁,北京来往过两三次,是没什么要紧的了。
As s matter of fact, nothing would matter at all, because I was then twenty and had already traveled on Beijng-Pukou Railway a couple of times.
例(31)是隐含“(动作)连贯”关系的汉语意合句与英语形合句,例(32)是隐含“递进”关系的汉语意合句和英语形合句,他们都是通过上下文的意义或者连贯意义来实现意义的完整。汉语行文中,在上下文清楚的情况下,往往简化了某种说法,或者约定俗成省略了某些词。在翻译中要补上,把原文隐含的意思表现出来。从总的篇章结构来看,汉语句子的衔接往往是依靠作者的思维来组织和推进的,尽量靠意思说话,不主要依靠连词,但英语句子的衔接对连词的依赖颇大,因此有时为了上下文的连贯和篇章的衔接,在翻译中也需要加一些词。例(34)“but”与“and”是译者添加的;例(35)中“when”与“and”是译者添加的;例(36)“because”与“and”是译者添加的。
这些例子正是英语重形合汉语重意合的有力印证。所以我们看到部分英语连词在汉语中找不到相应的同类词因而通过其他语言手段表示,或是被省略而依靠语序或逻辑规律来表达意义。英语重形合而多用连词,汉语重意合而少用连词,这一差别要求我们在英译汉时先分析句子的结构形式,然后确定句子的功能、意义,不必译出所有的连词;汉译英时先分析句子的功能、意义,然后确定句子的结构、形式,适当添加连词。这样,才能有助于译出能符合汉语和英语表达习惯的作品。
一、连词的多义性
有的连词具有几个不同的意思及用法,译成汉语时要根据其句中的具体作用来进行分析。例如:
while用来连接时间状语从句时,意为“当……时”,与when和as近义;while还可用作并列连词表示转折关系,意为“然而,而”,这时它一般位于两句之间;while还可连接让步状语从句,意为“虽然”,一般位于句首。例如:
He fell asleep while he was studying his grammar book. 他在阅读语法书的时候睡着了。
Jane was dressed in brown while Mary was dressed in yellow. 珍穿褐色衣服,玛丽却是穿黄色衣服。
While I admit that the problems are difficult, I don't agree that they cannot be solved. 虽然我承认这些问题很困难,但我并不同意它们无法解决。
if常用来连接条件状语从句,意为“如果,假如”,它所连接的从句大都位于主句之前;if也可用来连接宾语从句,意为“是否,究竟”,这时,它常用在ask, see, find, try, learn, know等动词后,与whether同义,一般可以互换。例如:
If you ask her, she will help you. 如果你向她请求,她会帮助你。
He asked if the test of the new machine had began. 他问起新机器的测试是否已经开始。
since可以连接原因状语从句,所表示的“原因”语气比because 弱些。这种原因状语从句一般位于主句之前;since还可连接时间状语从句,强调“从……时以来,一直……”,主句常用现在完成时态,从句常用一般过去时态。例如:
Since Jim can't answer the question, you'd better ask someone else. 既然吉姆回答不了这个问题,你最好问别的人吧。
Where have you been since I last saw you? 自上次和你见面以后你到哪里去了?
二、由两部分组成的连词
有些连词是由两部分组成,这两部分不在一起。例如:
both...and...是表示同等关系的并列连词,一般用来连接两种同类型的事物,强调“两者都……”。例如:
Both the wheat and the barley will be shipped tomorrow. 小麦和大麦明天都要装船运走。
either...or...(或者……或者……,不是……就是……)是表示选择关系的并列连词,表示“二者必居其一”。用either...or...来连接两个作主语的名词时,谓语动词要与后一个名词一致。例如:
Either I or he is to go to the power station. 不是我就是他要去发电站。
neither...nor...是表示同等、并列关系的并列连词,其意义与both...and...相反,对所连接的两个事物都加以否定。用neither...nor...表连接两个作主语的名词时,谓语动词要与后一个名词一致。例如:
Neither you nor she has ever seen the computer. 你和她都没有见过电脑。
not only...but also...(不但……而且……)是并列连词,一般用来连接两种同类型的事物,强调重点在后一个事物。用not only...but also...来连接两个作主语的名词时,谓语动词要与后一个名词一致。例如:
Not only all the students but also the teacher is doing the experiment in the lab. 不仅是所有学生,而且教师也正在实验室做试验。
so...that... (如此……以致……)和such...that...(这样……以致……)这两个连词都是连接结果状语从句的,它们所表达的意思相近,其区别是so一般与形容词或副词连用,而such则一般与名词连用。例如:
Light travels so fast that it is very difficult for us to imagine its speed. 光传播得这样快,以致我们难以想象它的速度。
These are such small shoes that I can't wear them. 这些鞋都太小,我穿不上。
三、一些起连词作用的词及词组
英语中除连词外,还有一些其他种类的词或词组可以起与连词类似的作用。
关系代词who, which, that和关系副词when, where, why等可用来连接定语从句。例如:
Most of the heat energy which we get comes from the sun.我们所得到的大部分热能来源于太阳。
A person who makes steel is a steel maker. 炼钢的人叫炼钢工人。
The time when China had to live on “ foreign oil” is gone forever. 中国不得不用“洋油”的时代已一去不复返了。
This is the lab where they do their experiments. 这是他们做实验的实验室。
I don't know the reason why she was late for class. 我不知道她上课迟到的原因。
另外还有一些副词或短语也可使前后句的意思更为连贯,起到一定的连词作用。如moreover(况且),as a result(结果,因此), on the other hand(另一方面),therefore(因此), in addition(此外,加之), thus(这样,因而), nevertheless(但是,然而)等。例如:
There seemed no chance of coming to an agreement, therefore it was decided to break off negotiations. 似乎已没有达成协议的可能,因此决定中止谈判。
The plan had certain weaknesses, nevertheless we decided to adopt it. 这个计划有某些缺点,不过我们还是决定采纳。
The engine operates the moment the button is pressed. 一按启动按钮,发动机便开始运转。
1 that
I think(that) he likes football.
我想他喜欢足球。
that引导名词性从句(主语从句、表语从句、宾语从句和同位语从句)和定语从句,本书只介绍宾语从句。
1.that在宾语从句、间接引语中可以省略,主句与从句时态一致。
I think(that) he is tired.我想他累了。
I thought(that) he was tired.
注意
要特别注意主句与从句时态的呼应。如果主句是过去时,从句一律改为过去的时态,详见第二十章宾语从句。
2.如果主句的动词是 think, believe…;如果主句的主语是第一人称,变为否定句时,要否定主句,译成中文时,则否定从句。
I believe you will leave here.
我相信,你会离开这儿的。
I don''t believe you will leave here.
我相信,你不会离开这儿的。
必背!
I hope that~我希望~
I think that~我认为~
I say that~我说~
I know that~我知道~
I find that~我发现~
be afraid that~恐怕~
be sure that~确认~
be glad(happy) that~很高兴~
(以上的that都可以省略)
2 when,while,till,until,since…
When he arrives there he will call you.
他到达那儿以后,他会给你打电话。
when, while, till, until, since, after, before, as soon as等是连接时间状语从句的连词。在时间状语从句中要特别注意时态的搭配:当主句是将来时,从句要用一般现在时。
注意
while所引导的从句的谓语动词只能是延续性的,不能用点动词。(如begin,stop…)
When I arrived there, it was raining.
当我到那儿时,天正在下雨。
I entered the room while(when) Li Ming was talking with her.
我进屋时,李明正在和她谈话。
I didn''t go to sleep until(till)I finished my homework.
直到我做完作业,我才上床睡觉。
We won''t work until(till) our teacher teaches us how to do it.
老师教给我们如何做这工作之后,我们才会开始做。
He came to China after the war was over.
比较
连词连接从句不同,意思不同。
He had been in China before the war was over.
战争结束前,他已经在中国了。
=The war was over before he came to China.
=The war had been over before he came to China.
战争结束后,他来到中国。
I have learned more than two thousand English words since I began learning English two years ago.
自从两年前我开始学习英语以来,我已经学习了两千多个英语单词了。
注意
since引导的是一个过去时的句子,说明自当时以来到现在(自从两年前以来),主句一般要用现在完成时。
As soon as I get enough money,I''ll buy it.
我一得到足够的钱,就买它。
3 because:因为,连接原因状语从句
She didn''t go there,because she was ill.
因为她病了,所以她没去那儿。
1.回答Why问句时,只能用because,不能用for或 as.
Why are you late?
你为什么迟到?
Because I met a traffic accident on my way here.
因为在我来这儿的路上,遇到了车祸。
2.汉语中,我们经常说因为……所以,但在英文中有了because,就不能再用so。
(×)Because he was tired, so he couldn''t walk there.
因为他累了,所以他不能走到那儿了。
4 if,though (although)
If it doesn''t rain,we''ll go to the park.
如果不下雨,我们就去公园。
Though I was tired, I still worked hard.
虽然我很累,可是我仍然努力地工作。
1.if:如果(引导条件从句)
You can pass the exam if you study hard.
如果你努力学习,你会及格的。
2.though,although:虽然(引导让步状语从句)和原因状语从句一样,如果用了though,although (虽然)就不能再用but(但是)。
Although(Though) I live near the sea, I''m not a good swimmer.
=I live near the sea,but I''m not a good swimmer.
虽然我住在海边,可是我游泳并不好。
注意
注意时态一致,和时间状语从句一样。主句是将来时之时,从句要用一般现在时。
5 so…that:太……以致……
He is so old that he can''t work. = He is too old to work.
他太老了,不能工作。
The box is so heavy that I can''t lift it.
=The box is too heavy for me to lift.
箱子太沉了,我抬不起来。
The girl is so beautiful that everybody likes her.
这个小女孩太漂亮了,每个人都喜欢她。
注意
注意此句型与too…to的互换。
so…that在肯定句中不能转换成too…to…。
连词(conjunction)具有连接字与字,句与句,子句与子句的作用,可分为对等连接词与从属连接词。
英汉连词的作用有许多共同点,但英语的连词比汉语多,且用得也比汉语广泛。因为英语短语与短语,句与句之间多采用形合法(hypotaxis),即要求结构上的完整。汉语则不同,短语与短语之间,句与句之间多采用意合法(parataxis)。
汉语句子结构一般都按时间顺庄和逻辑关系排列,语序固定,关系明确,不需要用那么多连接词来表示相互之间的关系.有时甚
至用“却”、“就”、“边”、“再”等副词表示连接关系。因此,英译汉时, 不少并列复合句或从属复合句中的连词往往省略。试比较下面句子:
(一)英译汉:
I help him amt he helps me.
我帮助他,他帮助我。
Study hard and make progress every day.
努力学习,天天向上。
Work hard and you will pass the examination.
你用功就会考试及格。
Buy and sell books.
买书卖书。
1 won't go if you are not going.
你不去,我也不去。
Whenever he is free,he will come and see me.
他一有空就来看我。
(二)汉译英:
留得青山在,不怕没柴烧。
As long as the green mountains are there,one should not worry about firewood.
饮水思源。
When one drinks water, one must not forget where it comes from.
任重道远。
The task entrusted to you is heavy and your road ahead is a long one.
只要请求他,一切就没有问题。
Ask him.and everything will be all right.
他那么年轻,就知道那么多。
So young,and he knows so much.
他收到这封信马上就动身了。 .
He started as soon as he received the letter.
(三)几个常见英语连词的用法与翻译:
英汉连词都是用来连接词、短语和句子的。根据连词本身含义及其连接成分的性质,可以分为两大类,一类叫等立连词(co-ordi-nate conjunction),一类叫从属连词(subordinate conjunction)等立连词所连接的部分彼此是并列关系。如:
and(和) or(或)
but(但是) for(因为)
not only……but also(不仅…… 而且)
neither…… nor(既不……也不)
从属连词是引导从句的。用来引导主语从句、表语从句、宾语从句的连词有:
if(是否)that(引导名词性从句,无词汇意义)
whether(是否)
用来引导状语从句的有:
when(在……时候)though(虽然)if(假如),
because(因为)so that(因此)等
汉语常用的连词不过二三十个,英语却有好几十。但英语的连词并不是很纯的,其中有些驳杂的现象。如:
After we had listened to the report,we held a discussion on it.
在这句里,“after”是介词用作连词的,不属于典型的连词。